Hindustani classical music
In the 12th century, a musical tradition split from its southern counterpart to form what is now known as Hindustani classical music. This divergence occurred when northern regions of the Indian subcontinent began developing distinct melodic and rhythmic systems. While Carnatic music in the south retained compositions primarily in Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, and other Dravidian languages, the north adopted a wider linguistic palette. Northern musicians started writing in Sanskrit, Hindustani, Braj, Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Bengali, Rajasthani, Punjabi, Persian, Lucknavi, Turkish, and more.
The central concept for both traditions remained the raga, a melodic mode sung to a tala, or rhythmic cycle. However, historical forces reshaped the northern path. The arrival of Islamic rule under the Delhi Sultanate introduced new cultural currents. Sufi composers like Amir Khusro (1253, 1325) became pivotal figures during this era. He composed in Persian, Turkish, Arabic, and Braj Bhasha, creating six genres including khyal, tarana, Naqsh, Gul, Qaul, and Qalbana.
Amir Khusro also systematized aspects of Hindustani music and introduced ragas such as Yaman Kalyan, Zeelaf, and Sarpada. His work marked a fusion of Hindu and Muslim ideas that would define the genre for centuries. Later, under the Mughal Empire, court musicians like Tansen flourished alongside religious groups such as the Vaishnavites. Artists including Dalptaram, Mirabai, Brahmanand Swami, and Premanand Swami revitalized classical Hindustani music between the 16th and 18th centuries.
Knowledge of Hindustani classical music was traditionally taught through a network of schools called gharanas. These were lineage-based systems where a guru passed knowledge to a shishya, or student. Until the late 19th century, instruction happened on a one-on-one basis within this mentor-protégé tradition. The system had benefits but also significant drawbacks. Many students spent most of their time serving their guru in hopes of receiving a single piece or nuance known as a cheez.
The guru-shishya system restricted access to a small subsection of the Indian community. Music was largely confined to palaces and dance halls. Intellectuals shunned it, the educated middle class avoided it, and society often viewed it as a frivolous practice. This isolation ended when royal patronage declined in the early 20th century. The expulsion of Wajid Ali Shah to Calcutta after 1857 brought Lucknavi musical traditions into Bengal, sparking the Ragpradhan gan movement around the turn of the century.
Vishnu Digambar Paluskar founded the Gandharva Mahavidyalaya school in Lahore in 1901. Despite being blind from age 12, he created an institution open to all that ran on public support and donations rather than royal funding. His books and the school helped foster a movement away from the closed gharana system. Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande conducted extensive research visits between 1909 and 1932 to collect compositions from numerous gharanas. He produced the four-volume work Hindustani Sangeeta Paddhati, originally in Marathi, which suggested a transcription of Indian music.
The theoretical framework of Hindustani classical music relies on specific melodic patterns called ragas and rhythmic cycles known as talas. Ancient treatises like the Natya Shastra by Bharata (2nd, 3rd century CE) and Dattilam (probably 3rd, 4th century CE) refined these principles. The term raga appears in the Natya Shastra with a literal meaning of color or mood. A clearer expression emerges in Jati within the Dattilam text.
Dattilam discusses scales called swaras, defining a tonal framework named grama using 22 micro-tonal intervals known as shruti. One sense of shruti refers to received texts of the Vedas; here it means notes of a scale comprising one octave. The text categorizes melodic structure into 18 groups called Jati, which are fundamental melodic structures similar to the raga. Names of the Jatis reflect regional origins, such as Andhri and Oudichya.
Narada's Sangita Makarandha treatise from about 1100 CE contains rules similar to current Hindustani classical music. Sharangadeva composed the Sangita Ratnakara in the 13th century, which includes names like Turushka Todi revealing an influx of ideas from Islamic culture. This text is often thought to date the divergence between Carnatic and Hindustani traditions. Ragas may originate from religious hymns, folk tunes, or music from outside the subcontinent. For example, raga Khamaj classicized from folk music while Hijaz originated in Persian maqams.
Major vocal forms associated with Hindustani classical music include dhrupad, khyal, and tarana. Dhrupad is an old style traditionally performed by male singers using tambura and pakhawaj accompaniments. Lyrics written centuries ago in Sanskrit are now often sung in brajbhasha, a medieval form of North and East Indian languages. The music is primarily devotional, containing recitals in praise of particular deities.
Dhrupad compositions begin with a long acyclic alap where syllables of a mantra are recited: Om Anant tam Taran Tarini Twam Hari Om Narayan, Anant Hari Om Narayan. The alap unfolds into rhythmic jod and jhala sections followed by bandish renditions with pakhawaj accompaniment. Tansen sang in this style before it gave way to the less austere khyal two centuries ago. Khyal literally means thought or imagination in Hindustani and derives from Persian/Arabic terms.
Khyal contains greater variety of embellishments compared to dhrupad. It features sargam and taan movements incorporating dhrupad-style alap. The origin remains controversial though accepted as based on dhrupad and influenced by other traditions. Many argue Amir Khusrau created the style in the late 14th century while Mughal emperor Mohammad Shah popularized it through court musicians Sadarang, Adarang, and Manrang. Taranas are medium- to fast-paced songs conveying elation usually performed toward concert ends using bols from Tabla or Pakhawaj language.
Although focused on vocal performance, instrumental forms have existed since ancient times. In recent decades outside South Asia, instrumental Hindustani music is more popular than vocal music due to different styles, faster tempos, and language barriers for lyrics. The veena was traditionally regarded as the most important string instrument but has largely been superseded by cousins like sitar and sarod which owe origins to Persian influences.
The tambura functions as a fundamental layer that all instruments adhere to throughout performances. Among bowed instruments, sarangi and violin remain popular. Bansuri, shehnai, and harmonium serve as important wind instruments. In percussion ensembles, tabla and pakhavaj dominate. Rarely used plucked or struck string instruments include surbahar, sursringar, santoor, and various slide guitar versions.
Many musical instruments developed during specific historical periods. Amir Khusro's era saw the creation of several new instruments including early forms of the sitar. The family of instruments blending Persian and Indian cultures includes the Indian sarod, sursingar, kamaica, Nepali-Tibetan-Bhutanese tungana, Pamiri rubab, and Uyghur rawap. These have been played by Hindus, Buddhists, and Muslims across centuries.
Until the late 19th century, Hindustani classical music remained confined to palaces and dance halls. Intellectuals shunned it while society viewed it as frivolous practice. This changed when Vishnu Digambar Paluskar and Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande spread the genre to masses through conferences, schools, classroom teaching, standardized grading systems, and notation standardization. Government-run All India Radio, Bangladesh Betar, and Radio Pakistan brought artists to public attention countering lost patronage systems.
The first star emerged from Fred Gaisberg's recordings in 1902 featuring Gauhar Jan. Public performances became primary income sources with film advances and media expansion. Corporate support arrived later through institutions like ITC Sangeet Research Academy. Gurukuls such as Alauddin Khan at Maihar flourished during this modern era.
Hindustani classical music gained global popularity through artists including Ravi Shankar, Ali Akbar Khan, and Vikash Maharaj. One of earliest modern festivals was Harballabh Sangeet Sammelan founded in 1875 in Jallandhar. Others include Sankatmochan Sangeet Samarth in Varanasi, Dover Lane Music Conference debuting in 1952 in Kolkata, Sawai Gandharva Bhimsen Festival starting 1953 in Pune, ITC SRA Sangeet Sammelan since early 1970s, SPIC MACAY since 1977, and Pandit Nanhku Maharaj since 1995.
Common questions
When did Hindustani classical music split from its southern counterpart?
Hindustani classical music split from its southern counterpart in the 12th century. This divergence occurred when northern regions of the Indian subcontinent began developing distinct melodic and rhythmic systems.
Who was Amir Khusro and what role did he play in Hindustani classical music?
Amir Khusro lived from 1253 to 1325 and became a pivotal figure during the era of Islamic rule under the Delhi Sultanate. He systematized aspects of Hindustani music, introduced ragas such as Yaman Kalyan, Zeelaf, and Sarpada, and created six genres including khyal, tarana, Naqsh, Gul, Qaul, and Qalbana.
How was Hindustani classical music traditionally taught before the late 19th century?
Until the late 19th century, instruction happened on a one-on-one basis within the guru-shishya system where a guru passed knowledge to a shishya or student. Many students spent most of their time serving their guru in hopes of receiving a single piece or nuance known as a cheez.
What institutions were founded to spread Hindustani classical music to the masses?
Vishnu Digambar Paluskar founded the Gandharva Mahavidyalaya school in Lahore in 1901 while Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande conducted research visits between 1909 and 1932 to collect compositions from numerous gharanas. These efforts fostered a movement away from the closed gharana system through public support, donations, and standardized grading systems.
Which ancient treatises defined the theoretical framework of Hindustani classical music?
Ancient treatises like the Natya Shastra by Bharata from the 2nd and 3rd century CE and Dattilam from probably the 3rd and 4th century CE refined these principles. Sharangadeva composed the Sangita Ratnakara in the 13th century which includes names like Turushka Todi revealing an influx of ideas from Islamic culture.