Guatemalan Civil War

The Coup And Military Rule

On the 19th of October 1944 a small group of soldiers and students led by Jacobo Árbenz and Major Francisco Javier Arana attacked the National Palace in what became known as the October Revolution. They defeated President Ponce and drove him into exile establishing a junta that declared democratic elections would be held before year end. The winner of the 1944 elections was teaching major Juan José Arévalo who won 85 percent of votes widely considered fair and open. Arévalo implemented social reforms including minimum wage laws increased educational funding near-universal suffrage excluding illiterate women and labor reforms. Many changes only benefited upper-middle classes doing little for peasant agricultural laborers making up majority population. Decree 900 passed in 1952 ordered redistribution of fallow land on large estates threatening interests of landowning elite mainly United Fruit Company. Strong ties existed between United Fruit Company and high Eisenhower administration officers including brothers John Foster Dulles Secretary of State and Allen Dulles CIA director both serving on company board. U.S. government ordered CIA to launch Operation PBFortune from 1952 to 1954 halting Guatemala's communist revolt perceived by United Fruit Company and State Department. CIA chose right-wing Guatemalan Army Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas to lead insurrection during 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état. Upon deposing Árbenz Guzmán government Castillo Armas began dissolving decade of social economic reform legislative progress banning labor unions left-wing political parties disfranchising left-wing Guatemalans. He returned all confiscated land to United Fruit and elite landlords. A series of military coups followed featuring fraudulent elections where only military personnel were winner candidates. On the 13th of November 1960 a group of left-wing junior military officers of Escuela Politécnica national military academy led failed revolt against autocratic government of General Ydígoras Fuentes who had usurped power in 1958 after assassination of incumbent Colonel Castillo Armas. Young officers outraged by staggering corruption government showing favoritism giving military promotions rewards supporting Ydígoras perceived incompetence running country. Immediate trigger for revolt was Ydígoras decision allowing U.S. train invasion force prepare planned Bay of Pigs Invasion Cuba without consulting Guatemalan military sharing payoff received exchange from U.S. government. Military concerned infringement sovereignty unmarked U.S. warplanes piloted US-based Cuban exiles flew large numbers over country U.S. established secret airstrip training camp at Retalhuleu prepare invasion Cuba. Rebels fled hills eastern Guatemala neighboring Honduras forming kernel known as MR-13 named date officers' revolt. Surviving officers later established communication with Cuban government Fidel Castro. By 1962 surviving officers established insurgent movement known MR-13. They returned early 1962 attacking offices United Fruit Company present-day Chiquita Brands American corporation controlling vast territories Guatemala other Central American countries. Attack sparked sympathetic strikes university student walkouts throughout country Ydígoras regime responded violent crackdown sparking civil war.

Death Squads And Counterinsurgency

In February and March 1964 Guatemalan Air Force began selective bombing campaign against MR-13 bases Izabal followed counterinsurgency sweep neighboring department Zacapa code-name Operation Falcon September October following year. Phase conflict U.S. government sent Green Berets CIA advisers instruct Guatemalan military counterinsurgency anti-guerrilla warfare. In addition U.S. police Public Safety advisers sent reorganize Guatemalan police forces. Response increased insurgent activity capital specialty squad National Police organized June 1965 called Comando Seis Commando Six deal urban guerrilla assaults. Commando Six received special training from U.S. Public Safety Program money weapons from U.S. Public Safety Advisors. November 1965 U.S. Public Safety Advisor John Longan arrived Guatemala temporary loan post Venezuela assist senior military police officials establish urban counterinsurgency program. Assistance Longan Guatemalan Military launched Operation Limpieza Operation Cleanup urban counterinsurgency program command Colonel Rafael Arriaga Bosque. Program coordinated activities country main security agencies including Army Judicial Police National Police covert overt anti-guerrilla operations. Under Arriaga direction security forces began abduct torture kill PGT key constituents. Money support U.S. advisors President Enrique Peralta Azurdia established Presidential Intelligence Agency National Palace telecommunications database known Regional Telecommunications Center La Regional linking National Police Treasury Guard Judicial Police Presidential House Military Communications Center via VHF-FM intracity frequency. La Regional served depository names suspected subversives own intelligence operational unit attached Policía Regional network built Committees against Communism created CIA coup 1954. March 3 and 5 1966 G-2 military intelligence Judicial Police raided three houses Guatemala City capturing twenty-eight trade unionists members PGT captured included most PGT central committee peasant federation leader Leonardo Castillo Flores. All subsequently disappeared custody security force became known subsequent months Guatemalan press the 28. Incident followed wave unexplained disappearances killings Guatemala City countryside reported Guatemala City press. When press censorship lifted period relatives the 28 others disappeared Zacapa-Izabal military zone went press Association University Students AEU. Using legal department AEU pressed habeas corpus behalf disappeared persons government denied involvement killings disappearances. the 16th of July 1966 AEU published detailed report abuses last months Peralta regime naming thirty-five individuals involved killings disappearances including military commissioners members Ambulant Military Police PMA coordination G-2. Publication report death-squad attacks AEU University San Carlos began intensify. Many law students members AEU assassinated. Use tactics increased dramatically inauguration President Julio César Méndez Montenegro bid placate secure support military establishment gave carte blanche engage any means necessary pacify country. Military subsequently ran counterinsurgency program autonomously Presidential House appointed Vice-Defense Minister Col. Manuel Francisco Sosa Avila main counterinsurgency coordinator. Army General Staff Ministry Defense took control Presidential Intelligence Agency controlled La Regional annex renamed Guatemalan National Security Service Servico de Seguridad Nacional de Guatemala SSNG.

Scorched Earth In The Highlands

In October 1966 Guatemalan Army mounted larger pacification effort departments Zacapa Izabal dubbed Operation Guatemala. Colonel Arana Osorio appointed commander Zacapa-Izabal Military Zone take charge counter-terror program guidance training 1,000 U.S. Green Berets. Under Colonel Arana jurisdiction military strategists armed fielded various paramilitary death squads supplement regular army police units clandestine terror operations FAR civilian support base. Personnel weapons funds operational instructions supplied organizations armed forces. Death squads operated impunity permitted government kill civilians deemed insurgents insurgent collaborators. Civilian membership army paramilitary units consisted largely right-wing fanatics ties MLN founded led Mario Sandoval Alarcón former participant 1954 coup. By 1967 Guatemalan army claimed 1,800 civilian paramilitaries under direct control. Blacklists compiled suspected guerrilla collaborators communist leanings troops paramilitaries moved through Zacapa systematically arresting suspected insurgents collaborators prisoners killed spot disappeared taken clandestine detention camps interrogation. Villages Army suspected pro-guerrilla Army rounded peasant leaders publicly executed threatening kill additional civilians villagers did not cooperate authorities. 1976 report Amnesty International cited estimates between 3,000 8,000 peasants killed army paramilitary organizations Zacapa Izabal October 1966 March 1968. Other estimates put death toll 15,000 Zacaca Mendez period. Result Colonel Arana Osorio subsequently earned nickname Butcher Zacaca brutality. the 2nd of November 1966 nationwide state siege declared Guatemala civil rights including habeas corpus suspended entire security apparatus including local police private security guards placed Minister Defense Col. Rafael Arriaga Bosque. Press censorship imposed alongside security measures designed keep Zacaca campaign entirely shrouded secrecy controls ensured only reports made public counter-terror program Zacaca handed army public relations office. Day state siege directive published banning publication reports arrests authorization military authorities. At time Zacaca campaign government launched parallel counter-terror program cities Part new initiative increased militarization police forces activation several new counter-terror units army National Police performing urban counter-terror functions particularly extralegal activities opponents state. National Police transformed adjunct military frontline force government urban pacification program left. January 1967 Guatemalan Army formed Special Commando Unit Guatemalan Army SCUGA thirty-five man commando unit composed anti-communist army officers right-wing civilians placed command Colonel Máximo Zepeda. SCUGA CIA referred government-sponsored terrorist organization used primarily assassinations political abductions carried out abductions bombings street assassinations torture disappearances summary executions real suspected communists.

The Trial Of A Dictator

In 2013 government conducted trial former president Efraín Ríos Montt charges genocide killing disappearances more than 1,700 indigenous Ixil Maya during his 1982, 83 rule. Charges genocide based Memoria del Silencio report prepared UN-appointed Commission Historical Clarification. Also first time court recognized rape abuse Mayan women suffered. Of 1465 cases rape reported soldiers responsible 94.3 percent. Commission concluded government could have committed genocide Quiché between 1981 and 1983. Ríos Montt first former head state tried genocide own country judicial system found guilty sentenced 80 years prison. Few days later sentence reversed country high court called renewed trial alleged judicial anomalies. Trial resumed the 23rd of July 2015 jury reached verdict before Montt died custody the 1st of April 2018. In 2009 Guatemalan courts sentenced former military commissioner Felipe Cusanero first person convicted crime ordering forced disappearances. During civil war estimated 40,000 to 200,000 people killed disappeared forcefully including 40,000 to 50,000 disappearances. Fighting took place government forces rebel groups yet much violence very large coordinated campaign one-sided violence Guatemalan state civilian population mid-1960s onward. Military intelligence services coordinated killings disappearances opponents state rural areas where insurgency maintained strongholds government repression led large massacres peasantry destruction villages departments Izabal Zacaca 1966, 68 predominantly Mayan western highlands 1978 onward widespread killing Mayan people early 1980s considered genocide. Other victims repression included activists suspected government opponents returning refugees critical academics students left-leaning politicians trade unionists religious workers journalists street children. Comisión Esclarecimiento Histórico estimated government forces committed 93 human right abuses conflict 3 committed guerrillas.

Peace And The End Of War

In 1977 administration US president Jimmy Carter targeted Guatemala several other Latin American regimes reduction military assistance pursuance Section 502B Foreign Assistance Act stated no assistance provided government engages consistent pattern gross violations internationally recognized human rights. Transition Laugerud Lucas Garcia regimes began period increased militarization Indian highlands accompanied additional counterinsurgency operations. At same time Guatemalan government becoming increasingly isolated internationally. On the 23rd of March 1982 General Efraín Ríos Montt group junior army officers seized power military coup. In 1970s social discontent continued among large populations indigenous people peasants organized insurgent groups began resist government forces. During 1980s Guatemalan military assumed close to absolute government power five years successfully infiltrated eliminated enemies every socio-political institution nation including political social intellectual classes final stage civil war military developed parallel semi-visible low profile but high-effect control Guatemala national life. Civil war fought 1960 1996 government Guatemala various leftist rebel groups. Guatemalan government forces committed genocide Maya population Guatemala during civil war widespread human rights violations civilians. Context struggle based longstanding issues land distribution wealthy Guatemalans mainly European descent foreign companies like American United Fruit Company controlled much land leading conflicts rural disproportionately indigenous peasants worked land. Democratic elections 1944 1951 during Guatemalan Revolution brought popular leftist governments power sought ameliorate working conditions implement land distribution. United States-backed coup d'état 1954 installed military regime Carlos Castillo Armas prevent reform. Armas followed series right-wing military dictators Civil War began the 13th of November 1960 group left-wing junior military officers led failed revolt government General Ydígoras Fuentes. Officers survived created rebel movement known MR-13. In 1970 Colonel Carlos Manuel Arana Osorio first series military dictators represented Institutional Democratic Party PID. PID dominated Guatemalan politics twelve years electoral frauds favoring two Colonel Arana protégés General Kjell Eugenio Laugerud García 1974 General Romeo Lucas Garcia 1978. PID lost grip Guatemalan politics General Efraín Ríos Montt group junior army officers seized power military coup the 23rd of March 1982.

Common questions

What caused the Guatemalan Civil War to begin in 1960?

The Guatemalan Civil War began on the 13th of November 1960 when a group of left-wing junior military officers led by Jacobo Árbenz and Major Francisco Javier Arana attacked the National Palace. This revolt was triggered by General Ydígoras Fuentes allowing U.S. train invasion forces to prepare for the Bay of Pigs Invasion without consulting the Guatemalan military.

Who were the main perpetrators of genocide during the Guatemalan Civil War?

Guatemalan government forces committed genocide against the Maya population during the civil war from 1981 to 1983 under the rule of General Efraín Ríos Montt. Military intelligence services coordinated killings and disappearances that resulted in an estimated 40,000 to 200,000 people killed or disappeared between 1960 and 1996.

When did the United States intervene in Guatemala through Operation PBFortune?

The U.S. government ordered the CIA to launch Operation PBFortune from 1952 to 1954 to halt what they perceived as Guatemala's communist revolt. The operation installed right-wing Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas who dissolved social reforms and returned confiscated land to the United Fruit Company and elite landlords.

What role did the United Fruit Company play in the conflict?

Strong ties existed between the United Fruit Company and high Eisenhower administration officers including Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and CIA director Allen Dulles. The company influenced U.S. policy by opposing Decree 900 which threatened its interests by ordering redistribution of fallow land on large estates.

How many indigenous Mayan people were killed during the Guatemalan Civil War?

Estimates indicate that between 3,000 and 8,000 peasants were killed in the Zacapa-Izabal region alone between October 1966 and March 1968. Overall death tolls for the entire civil war period range from 40,000 to 200,000 people killed or disappeared forcefully.

Guatemalan Civil War.