Gothic War (535–554)

• 1. Imperial Ambitions And Prelude

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  In 535, Emperor Justinian I entered a war that would consume two decades of the Italian peninsula. His goal was to recover provinces lost during the Migration Period to barbarian tribes. The Eastern Roman Empire had already reconquered Africa from the Vandals in 533. This victory encouraged Justinian to target Italy next. Ostrogothic rule there had begun when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus in 476. Theodoric the Great later settled his people as allies to remove Odoacer. Under Theodoric, civil administration remained Byzantine while the army stayed Gothic. Religious differences existed between Chalcedonian Christians and Arian Goths, yet tolerance prevailed initially.

  The fragile peace collapsed after Theodoric died. His grandson Athalaric became king at age ten, with Amalasuntha ruling as regent. She sought closer ties with Constantinople to balance Gothic power. Gothic magnates plotted against her, killing three conspirators before she wrote to Justinian for sanctuary. When Theodahad arrested and killed Amalasuntha in early 535, Justinian used this as justification for war. Procopius recorded that Justinian declared war immediately upon learning of her death. He appointed Belisarius as commander-in-chief with only 7,500 men. These forces were small compared to those he had used against the Vandals.

• 2. Belisarius Conquest Of Italy

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  Belisarius landed in Sicily during late 535, where the population favored the Empire. Palermo offered resistance until December, but the island fell quickly. In March 536, Mundus captured Salona, the capital of Dalmatia. A large Gothic army arrived soon after, killing Mundus' son Mauricius in a skirmish. Although Mundus inflicted a heavy defeat on the Goths, he died from wounds sustained in pursuit. Byzantine troops withdrew, leaving most of Dalmatia to the Goths except for Salona.

  Theodahad imprisoned Byzantine ambassadors, prompting Justinian to send new envoys. Constantinianus recovered Dalmatia swiftly by June 536. The Gothic general Gripas abandoned Salona due to ruined fortifications and pro-Byzantine sympathies among citizens. Belisarius crossed into Italy in 536, capturing Rhegium before moving north. Naples surrendered after three weeks of siege in November, followed by a brutal sack by the largely barbarian Byzantine army. Rome offered no resistance when Belisarius arrived in December.

  Vitiges replaced Theodahad after his inactivity enraged the Goths. He married Amalasuntha's daughter Matasuntha at Ravenna while rallying forces against the invasion. A massive Gothic force besieged Rome from March 537 to March 538. Over 1,600 Huns and Slavs arrived from Constantinople in April 537, bolstering Byzantine numbers. Another 5,000 men joined in November, allowing the defenders to take the offensive. Their cavalry captured towns behind Gothic lines, cutting off supplies via the imperial navy.

• 3. Gothic Revival Under Totila

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  Totila became king in early autumn 541 after Eraric was murdered. He enjoyed several advantages including the Plague of Justinian which devastated the eastern Empire in 542. A new war with Persia forced Justinian to deploy most troops eastward. Incompetence among Byzantine generals undermined military discipline across Italy. Totila achieved his first success through treachery at Verona, where Byzantine commanders delayed attacking over prospective booty. He destroyed a Byzantine army at the Battle of Faventia with 5,000 men.

  Florence fell under siege as Totila marched into Tuscany. Generals John, Bessas, and Cyprian attempted relief but were defeated at Mucellium despite numerical superiority. Southern provinces recognized Totila's authority while he bypassed Rome initially. When fortified locations fell, their walls were razed to eliminate future military value. He treated captives well, enticing opponents to surrender rather than resist. During the Siege of Naples in 543, he allowed the city to surrender on terms and displayed considerable humanity toward defenders.

  Belisarius returned to Italy in 544 with 200 ships but lacked supplies due to jealousy from Justinian. Famine struck during the siege of Rome, reducing ordinary soldiers to eating bran, nettles, dogs, mice, and finally excrement. Pope Vigilius sent grain ships that Totila's navy intercepted near the mouth of the Tiber. Belisarius failed to relieve Rome after more than a year. On the 17th of December 546, Totila entered Rome when his men scaled walls at night and opened Porta Asinaria. He tore down about one-third of the city's walls before leaving.

• 4. Narses Final Victory

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  Byzantine forces assembled an expeditionary army of 20,000 or 25,000 men at Salona between 550 and 551. Narses, imperial chamberlain, commanded this force starting mid-551. The following spring, he led troops along the Adriatic coast to Ancona then turned inland via Via Flaminia toward Rome. Near Taginae, they encountered Totila advancing to intercept them. Totla found himself outnumbered and ostensibly negotiated while planning a surprise attack.

  Narses deployed his army in strong defensive positions despite the ruse. Reinforcements arrived just as Totila launched a sudden mounted assault on the Byzantine center. By evening, the Ostrogoths broke and fled. Totila was killed during the rout. Gothic garrisons holding Rome capitulated shortly afterward. At Mons Lactarius in October 553, Narses defeated Teias and the last remnants of the Gothic army in Italy.

  Seven thousand Goths held out at Campsa near Naples until spring 555 when they finally surrendered. Lands north of the Po remained under Frankish and Alemannic control until 562. Verona and Brixia were the final strongholds subjugated that year. Procopius noted barbarian populations were allowed to live peacefully under Byzantine sovereignty after these campaigns ended.

• 5. Foreign Invasions And Aftermath

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  In early 553, thirty thousand Franks and Alemanni crossed the Alps taking Parma. They defeated Heruli commander Fulcaris' forces before many northern Italian Goths joined their ranks. Narses dispersed troops throughout central Italy and wintered at Rome. Barbarians committed serious depredations across the region before being brought to battle on the banks of the Volturnus river.

  The Battle of the Volturnus saw Byzantines hold off a furious Frankish assault while cavalry encircled them. The Franks and Alemanni were nearly annihilated during this engagement. Despite victories, lands and cities across the River Po remained contested by remaining Germanic groups. Only three years after Justinian's death in 565 did mainland territories fall to Lombards. The Exarchate of Ravenna stretched from central Italy to Naples as the sole imperial holding.

  Italy suffered devastating urban decline with great cities abandoned during long periods of hardship. Plague estimates suggest up to a quarter of the population died at war's height. Deaths not caused by disease continued rising due to constant attacks on Rome. Harsh reprisals and heavy taxation shifted allegiances away from loyalty to Empire toward religion, family, or city identity. Unified Roman-Byzantine control over Italy broke permanently until unification efforts began in the 19th century.