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Foreign relations of the Mughal Empire | HearLore
Foreign relations of the Mughal Empire
In 1512, the Ottoman Sultan Selim I sent two Turkish engineers, Ustad Ali Quli and Mustafa Rumi, to the court of Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, carrying a gift that would change the course of Indian warfare forever. These men brought with them the Ottoman device, a tactical innovation involving the use of matchlocks and cannons in open field battles rather than solely for sieges. This military technology, previously demonstrated by the Ottomans at the Battle of Chaldiran, gave Babur a decisive advantage over his rivals and became the foundation of Mughal military dominance in India. Before this alliance, Babur's relations with the Ottomans had been strained because Selim I had supported Babur's rival, the Uzbek Ubaydullah Khan, by providing him with powerful matchlocks and cannons. The shift from rivalry to cooperation was driven by Selim's fear that Babur might join forces with the Shia Safavids of Persia, a move that would have threatened Ottoman interests in the region. Babur's adoption of this technology allowed him to win the Battle of Khanwa in 1527, securing his position as the ruler of India and establishing a tradition of military cooperation that would persist for centuries.
The Persian Knot
The city of Kandahar, a rich and fertile region well supplied with water, became the central bone of contention between the Mughal Empire and the Persian Safavid dynasty for over a century. While the Persians viewed Kandahar as merely a strategic fort, the Mughals saw it as the essential defense for Kabul and the key to controlling the independent-minded Afghan and Baluch tribes. In 1595, Emperor Akbar captured the city to create a defensible frontier against the Uzbegs, but the struggle for control would continue long after his death. The relationship between the two empires was often cordial, yet the possession of Kandahar remained a source of tension that could not be ignored. In 1620, Shah Abbas I of Persia sent a friendly request to Jahangir to return the city, but the Mughal prince Khurram, later Shah Jahan, made impossible demands and refused to move, allowing the city to fall into Persian hands by 1622. The cordiality between the two powers ended, and despite Jahangir's attempts to erase the bitterness through lavish embassies and costly gifts, the conflict resumed. Shah Jahan later managed to retain Kandahar in 1638 by allying with the Persian governor Ali Mardan Khan, but the city was lost again in 1649 when the Persians attacked and conquered it. Aurangzeb, who succeeded Shah Jahan, made three attempts to recapture the city, but the determined resistance of the Persian commander and the harsh conditions of the region made all efforts futile. By 1668, the Persian danger to India had faded, and Aurangzeb decided to let go of the Kandahar affair, recognizing that the strategic significance of the city had diminished with the weakening of both the Persians and the Uzbegs.
What military technology did Ottoman Sultan Selim I send to Babur in 1512?
Ottoman Sultan Selim I sent two Turkish engineers named Ustad Ali Quli and Mustafa Rumi to Babur's court in 1512 carrying matchlocks and cannons for use in open field battles. This tactical innovation gave Babur a decisive advantage over his rivals and became the foundation of Mughal military dominance in India.
When did the Mughal Empire lose control of Kandahar to the Persian Safavid dynasty for the last time?
The Mughal Empire lost control of Kandahar to the Persians in 1649 when they attacked and conquered the city after Shah Jahan had previously retained it in 1638. Aurangzeb made three attempts to recapture the city but the Persian resistance and harsh regional conditions made all efforts futile by 1668.
How did Mughal Emperor Akbar support the Islamic holy cities in 1577?
Mughal Emperor Akbar appointed Mir Haj as an official in 1577 and granted him 500,000 rupees and 10,000 Khil'lat to serve as a representative for the Shariff of Mecca. Akbar's wife Mariam-uz-Zamani also built a massive trading ship named Rahimi that traveled from Surat to Jeddah to carry merchandise and pilgrims.
Why did English envoy Thomas Roe fall from favor at the court of Emperor Jahangir in 1609?
English envoy Thomas Roe fell from favor at the court of Emperor Jahangir because the Emperor had a strong prohibition of wine in his court despite Roe initially gaining favor with gifts of red wine. Roe resided at Agra for three years and was allegedly Jahangir's drinking partner before the Emperor's prohibition caused Roe to end his political career in the Mughal court.
What was the outcome of the Balkh campaign initiated by Shah Jahan in 1647?
The Balkh campaign initiated by Shah Jahan in 1647 resulted in Prince Aurangzeb routing the Uzbegs under Abdul Aziz near Balkh but the Mughals were forced to leave the same year due to harsh winter and shortage of supplies. The campaign failed to secure the Mughal homeland of Samarqand and Fargana as the Oxus river was hardly defensible and no serious attempt was made for the former.
When did the Ethiopian Emperor Fasilides dispatch an embassy to the Mughal Empire to congratulate Aurangzeb?
The Ethiopian Emperor Fasilides dispatched an embassy to India in 1664 to congratulate Aurangzeb upon his accession to the throne of the Mughal Empire. This diplomatic exchange marked a rare connection between the two distant powers and occurred alongside Mughal relationships with the Sultanate of Maldives and the Aceh Sultanate.
In 1577, the Mughal Emperor Akbar appointed an official titled Mir Haj, granting him 500,000 rupees and 10,000 Khil'lat to serve as a representative for the Shariff of Mecca, marking the beginning of a unique tradition of Mughal patronage of the Islamic holy cities. This financial support was not merely a gesture of piety but a strategic move to secure the pilgrimage routes and maintain influence in the Arabian Peninsula. Akbar's wife, Mariam-uz-Zamani, built a massive trading ship named Rahimi, which was homeported in Surat and traveled to Jeddah, the port near Mecca on the Red Sea. The ship carried merchandise for the vendors of the holy city and trafficked in pilgrims on various parts of their journey, serving as a vital link between India and the Hejaz. The tradition continued under Aurangzeb, who owned a trading ship even larger than the Rahimi, the Ganj-i-Sawai, which was dedicated to annual Hajj pilgrimage travel from India to Hejaz. Aurangzeb, known for his strict observance of Islamic teachings, went so far as to personally transcribe two Quran manuscripts and ship them to Medina as gifts. The chronicler Muhammad Saqi Musta'id Khan recorded that Aurangzeb's patronage of the Hajj through financial support, Quranic offerings, and salaried delegates was considered spiritually equivalent to performing the pilgrimage himself. The Mughals also exchanged gifts with the Shariff of Mecca, including Arabian horses, high-quality swords, and sacred relics, while the Shariff in turn provided the Mughals with non-currency gifts such as candlesticks studded with diamonds, estimated to be 100 carats according to some historians.
The Wine and The Firman
In 1609, the English envoy Thomas Roe arrived at the court of Emperor Jahangir with gifts of many crates of red wine, a move that initially gained him favor but ultimately led to his downfall. Roe, who resided at Agra for three years, was allegedly Jahangir's drinking partner, but the Emperor's strong prohibition of wine in his court eventually caused Roe to fall from favor, ending his political career in the Mughal court. Despite this setback, Roe's mission was part of a broader effort by the East India Company to establish trading factories in India, with the first factory established at Machilipatnam in 1611. The Dutch East India Company, or VOC, also sought to establish a presence in India, and in 1618, Jahangir issued the first known Firman directed towards the VOC in Gujarat. This document, contained in a letter from P. G. van Ravesteyn and A. W. Goeree to Jan Pieterszoon Coen, granted the Dutch freedom to trade at any Mughal port, autonomy to govern their affairs, and the application of a normal customs duty of 2.5 percent. The Dutch representative, Van Adrichem, was presented with Arabian horses, a red cloth, green cloth, lacquered palanquin, Japanese drawer, several Japanese boxes, a Venetian made mirror, two Japanese shields, and couple of exotic Bird-of-paradise. The VOC managed to monopolize the trade in nutmeg, mace, and cloves, selling these spices across European kingdoms and to Akbar of the Mughal Empire at 14 to 17 times the price it paid in Indonesia. The French East India Company also sought to establish a presence in India, and in 1667, ambassadors Le Gouz and Bebert presented Louis XIV of France's letter to Aurangzeb, urging the protection of French merchants from various rebels in the Deccan. In response, Aurangzeb issued a firman allowing the French to open a factory in Surat, and François Caron succeeded in founding French outposts at Surat around 1668 and at Masulipatam around 1669.
The Balkh Gambit
In 1647, the Mughal army under the command of Prince Aurangzeb routed the Uzbegs under Abdul Aziz near Balkh, marking a significant victory that raised the prestige of the Mughal army. However, the success was short-lived, as the unfriendly Uzbeg population of the Balkh and the harsh winter accompanied by shortage of supplies forced the Mughals to leave the same year. The Balkh campaign, initiated by Shah Jahan, was an attempt to regain the Mughal homeland of Samarqand and Fargana, and to set up a scientific frontier at the Oxus river. Prince Murad Baksh, who was ordered to march toward Balkh, made a mistake by not waiting for the order of Nazr Muhammad and rushed into the fort of Balkh, where Nazr Muhammad was seeking shelter. This hasty action made Nazr Muhammad skeptical of his intention, and he fled, allowing the Mughals to occupy Balkh. However, the Mughals were soon attacked by Abdul Aziz, the rebel son of Nazr Muhammad, who mustered an army of 120,000 to cross the Oxus river and launch a strike against the Mughals. Prince Murad, who was unable to continue in the campaign, was replaced by Prince Aurangzeb, who routed the Uzbegs. The gain of Shah Jahan was his success in keeping the Uzbegs divided and preventing a united Uzbeg state from rising, which could have been a danger to the Mughals at Kabul. The motive of the Balkh campaign, as Shah Jahan's attempt to regain Mughal homeland of Samarqand and Fargana, and setting up a scientific frontier at Oxus, is discarded by historian Satish Chandra, as the Oxus was hardly defensible and no serious attempt was made for the former.
The Eastern Front
In 1664, the Ethiopian Emperor Fasilides dispatched an embassy to India to congratulate Aurangzeb upon his accession to the throne of the Mughal Empire, marking a rare diplomatic exchange between the two distant powers. The Mughal Empire also maintained relationships with the Sultanate of Maldives, where in the 1660s, the Sultan of the Maldives, Ibrahim Iskandar I, requested help from Aurangzeb's representative, the Faujdar of Balasore. The Sultan wished to gain support in possible future expulsions of Dutch and English trading ships, as he was concerned with how they might impact the economy of the Maldives. However, as Aurangzeb did not possess a powerful navy and had no interest in providing support to Ibrahim in a possible future war with the Dutch or English, the request came to nothing. The Mughal Empire also maintained relationships with the Aceh Sultanate, where for decades, the Malabari Mappila Muslims representing the Mughal Empire patronized the Aceh Sultanate. Aurangzeb and his brother, Dara Shikoh, participated in Aceh trade, and Aurangzeb himself exchanged presents with the Sultan of Aceh in 1641. In that year, it is recorded that the daughter of Iskandar Muda, Sultanah Safiatuddin, presented Aurangzeb with eight elephants. When the Dutch East India Company tried to disrupt the trade in Aceh to make their own Malaka trade lucrative, Aurangzeb threatened the Dutch with retaliation against any losses in Gujarat due to Dutch intervention. This effort was caused due to the VOC realization that Muslim trading was damaging to the VOC. The Firman issued by Aurangzeb caused the VOC to back down and allowed Indian sailors to pass into Aceh, Perak, and Kedah, without any restrictions.