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— CH. 1 · GEOPOLITICAL FRONTIERS AND DEFENSE —

Foreign relations of the Mughal Empire

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6 sections

  • The Khyber Pass along the Kabul-Qandahar route served as the natural defense for India during the Mughal era. Successive rulers prioritized securing these western outposts to balance the rise of powerful empires in the region. Babur captured Qandhar following disruption created by Uzbegs in Khurasan, yet this victory remained short-lived after Humayun lost control. Shah Tahmasp, ruler of Persia at whose court Humayun had taken refuge, later captured the city when Humayun was ousted from India by Sher Shah Suri. Akbar determined to capture it again after conquest of Sindh and Baluchistan, seeking to promote trade via the region. In 1595, Akbar captured Qandhar to establish a defensible frontier against Uzbek threats. The strategic importance lay in controlling Afghan and Baluch tribes who possessed a tribal sense of independence difficult to manage otherwise.

  • Mariam-uz-Zamani, wife of emperor Akbar, built a massive trading ship named Rahimi for trade and Haj pilgrims at the Khizri Darwaza on the Ravi River. This vessel homeported in Surat but often traveled to Jeddah, the port near Mecca on the Red Sea. The ship carried merchandise for vendors of the holy city while trafficking in pilgrims on various parts of their journey. Aurangzeb owned a trading ship bigger than Rahimi called Ganj-i-Sawai, which mainly purposed for annual Hajj pilgrimage travel from India to Hejaz. Mughal emperors appointed an official title of Mir Haj in 1577 with 500,000 rupee and 10,000 Khil'lat for attribution for the Shariff. Non-currency gifts included candlesticks studded with diamonds estimated as 100 carats according to some historians. Aurangzeb reportedly shipped two Quran manuscripts personally transcribed by himself to Medina as gifts.

  • William Hawkins, captain of Hector, arrived at Surat in India on the 24th of August 1608 to negotiate consent for a factory from Emperor Jahangir. Hawkins gained trust from emperor Jahangir and was appointed as Mansabdar or military governor of Mughal territories. Thomas Roe resided at Agra for three years after being sent as royal envoy by King James. Roe allegedly gained favor of emperor Jahangir and may have been his drinking partner, arriving with many crates of red wine. However, Roe's political career ended due to reports about his drinking habit reaching Jahangir, who strongly forbade wine in his court. The East India Company persuaded King James to send Thomas Roe as a royal envoy to the Agra court of the Great Mughal Emperor, Jahangir. In the thirty years following 1603, trading factories established by the English on Machilipatnam reported to English Bantam.

  • In 1620, Shah Abbas I, ruler of Persia, sent a friendly request to Jahangir to return Qandhar and subsequently made preparation for expedition. Prince Khurram put many impossible demands and was reluctant to move onto the campaign, allowing Qandhar to pass into Persian hands by 1622. Shah Jahan formally retained Qandhar in 1638 after making the Persian governor Ali Mardan Khan to his side. In 1647, setback of Mughals at Balkh emboldened Persians to attack and conquer Qandhar. Aurangzeb led an army of 50,000 against Persians but could not capture the fort despite defeating them. Total Mughal attempts included three efforts: twice under Aurangzeb and once under Dara Shukoh, elder son of Shah Jahan. After ascending throne, Aurangzeb decided not to get embroiled into Qandhar affair provided it had lost strategic significance following weakening of both Persians and Uzbegs.

  • Abdullah Khan Uzbek captured Balkh and sent embassy to court of Akbar seeking coalition of Sunni powers against Persia. Akbar admonished him, letting him know that mere sectarian strife was not justifiable reason for conquest. In 1584, Abdullah Uzbek captured Badakhshan forcing Timurid prince Mirza Sulaiman along with grandson to seek refuge in Akbar's court. Akbar transferred capital to Lahore in 1585 due to unease with presence at Attock when Uzbek and Mughal borders ran side by side. Raja Man Singh occupied Kabul successfully after being despatched by Akbar. According to historian Satish Chandra, both empires reached informal agreement where Mughals gave up claims in Balkh and Badkhshan while Uzbegs left Kabul and Qandhar for Mughals. In 1595, when Abdullah Khan Uzbek captured Balkh and Badkhshan, area ruled by Timurids till 1585, Akbar forced to capture Qandhar again.

  • Babur refused to accept Selim I as his rightful suzerain in 1507, gathering Qizilbash servicemen to counter forces of Ubaydullah Khan during Battle of Ghazdewan in 1512. Selim I reconciled with Babur in 1513, dispatching Ustad Ali Quli and Mustafa Rumi to assist Babur in conquests. This assistance proved basis of future Mughal-Ottoman relations. From Ottoman Turks, Babur adopted tactic of using matchlocks and cannons in field rather than only in sieges. Babur referred to this method as Ottoman device due to previous use by Ottomans during Battle of Chaldiran. Later in 1527, Ottoman also assisted Mughals in battle of Khanwa. Jahangir began to contemplate military alliance between Ottoman Empire, Mughals, and Khanate of Bukhara against Safavids in 1626. Selim I provided Babur's rival Uzbek Ubaydullah Khan with powerful matchlocks and cannons initially creating poor relations.

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Ustad Ali Quli

Common questions

What was the strategic importance of the Khyber Pass during the Mughal era?

The Khyber Pass along the Kabul-Qandahar route served as the natural defense for India during the Mughal era. Successive rulers prioritized securing these western outposts to balance the rise of powerful empires in the region.

When did Akbar capture Qandhar to establish a defensible frontier against Uzbek threats?

Akbar captured Qandhar in 1595 to establish a defensible frontier against Uzbek threats. The strategic importance lay in controlling Afghan and Baluch tribes who possessed a tribal sense of independence difficult to manage otherwise.

Who built the trading ship Rahimi for trade and Haj pilgrims at the Khizri Darwaza on the Ravi River?

Mariam-uz-Zamani, wife of emperor Akbar, built a massive trading ship named Rahimi for trade and Haj pilgrims at the Khizri Darwaza on the Ravi River. This vessel homeported in Surat but often traveled to Jeddah, the port near Mecca on the Red Sea.

How many attempts did Aurangzeb make to capture Qandhar from Persians?

Total Mughal attempts included three efforts: twice under Aurangzeb and once under Dara Shukoh, elder son of Shah Jahan. Aurangzeb led an army of 50,000 against Persians but could not capture the fort despite defeating them.

When did William Hawkins arrive at Surat to negotiate consent for a factory from Emperor Jahangir?

William Hawkins, captain of Hector, arrived at Surat in India on the 24th of August 1608 to negotiate consent for a factory from Emperor Jahangir. Hawkins gained trust from emperor Jahangir and was appointed as Mansabdar or military governor of Mughal territories.

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All sources

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