Foreign enlistment in the American Civil War

• 1. Demographic Foundations of War

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  In the four decades before 1861, the United States absorbed four million immigrants. One million came from Ireland alone. Five hundred thousand arrived from German states. Three hundred thousand entered from Great Britain. By 1860, over one-tenth of all Americans were foreign-born. This influx swelled the population from five million to roughly thirty-one million people. The northern states drew the lion's share of these new arrivals. Two-thirds of all Americans lived in Union-controlled territory. Ninety-one percent of pre-war immigrants resided there. After secession, these immigrants made up over half the U.S. population. The North recruited the overwhelming majority of foreigners who served in the Civil War.

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• 2. German American Military Contributions

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  Approximately two hundred sixteen thousand Union soldiers were either born in Germany or were second and third generation Germans. They came largely from New York, Wisconsin, and Ohio. Major recruiting efforts targeted German communities across the country. Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Milwaukee became key hubs for enlistment. President Lincoln appointed Franz Sigel, a German veteran of the 1848 revolutions, to major general rank. Sigel would be the highest ranking German American officer in the Union Army. Several regiments were composed entirely of Germans. These included the 52nd New York, the 9th Ohio, and the 74th Pennsylvania. A private letter from a German enlistee read: I support the cause of freedom with all my might. German units had a reputation for discipline and martial prowess. Many Germans had previously served in European armies. Others participated in the armed uprisings of 1848. In its two years of operation, all but one commander of the XI Corps were Germans. This corps played a decisive role in the battles of Chancellorsville and Gettysburg. Numerous German Americans received the Medal of Honor.

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• 3. Irish Brigade and National Identity

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  The Irish Brigade comprised the well-regarded Fighting 69th New York Infantry Regiment. It also included the 63rd and 88th New York Infantry. The 28th Massachusetts and later the 116th Pennsylvania joined this formation. The Brigade took part in almost every major battle and campaign in the Eastern Theater. It reportedly suffered some of the highest casualties of any Union formation. One of the first military companies raised when the war broke out comprised entirely Polish immigrants. Brigadier General Włodzimierz Krzyżanowski recruited them. He was a veteran of the Greater Poland uprising of 1848. The unit moved to New York City and formed the 58th New York Infantry Regiment. It was officially registered as the Polish Legion. Krzyżanowski later became a brigade commander at Gettysburg. After the war he was appointed governor of Georgia. Other nationalities were represented in their own regiments. The 79th New York Highlanders initially consisted entirely of Scottish immigrants or descendants. Soldiers sported kilts and bonnets. They were accompanied by bagpipes. On at least one occasion, they wore tartan trews of Clan Cameron.

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• 4. Minority Enlistments and Prejudice

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  Many Jewish recruits faced greater hardship than other foreign groups due to general antisemitism. Pork was often served to all troops without regard for Jewish dietary restrictions. General Order No. 11 issued by Union Major-General Ulysses S. Grant on the 17th of December 1862 expelled all Jews from his military district. This order aimed to reduce corruption and illicit commercial activity. President Lincoln countermanded Grant's controversial order almost immediately after learning about it. Among the most notable examples were Leopold Karpeles and Abraham Cohn. Both immigrants received the Medal of Honor. A multiethnic makeup sometimes posed communications problems due to language barriers. The 39th New York Infantry Regiment included over a dozen nationalities. Algerians, Turks, Slavs, Swiss, and Spaniards served together under Hungarian colonel Frederick George D'Utassy. Maj. Gen. Sigel had his orders translated from German to Hungarian. His officers then translated reports into English. Finally, these were translated back into German for review. Many Hungarian speakers served as code talkers before formal encryption methods existed. They encoded and decoded telegrams with sensitive tactical information.

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• 5. Confederate Foreign Recruitment Efforts

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  Tens of thousands of pre-war immigrants served in the Confederate Army. Approximately forty thousand Irish joined the ranks. Ten thousand English-born immigrants also enlisted there. Most foreign-born Confederate soldiers had spent their lives in the American South. They fought out of personal affinity to their local community rather than support for slavery. By 1863, Georgia Governor Joseph E. Brown forcibly recruited foreign nationals to shore up the war effort. The most notable volunteer division comprised descendants of various European communities living in Louisiana. Major-General Camille Armand Jules Marie de Polignac commanded this unit. He was known affectionately by his troops as Prince Polecat. Polignac served with distinction in the Red River Campaign. He achieved victory at the Battle of Mansfield. Numerous British Americans in the South enlisted in the Confederate military. Henry Wemyss Feilden resigned his commission in the Black Watch to become an officer. William Watson served as a sergeant in the 3rd Louisiana Infantry. St. George's, Bermuda became the primary harbor from which goods were smuggled into the South. Thomas Leslie Outerbridge earned fortunes through trading with the Confederacy. Confederate agents operated openly in Bermuda while the United States consul there had his mail stolen.

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• 6. International Diplomacy and Neutrality

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  Foreign enlistment reflected the conflict's international significance among governments and citizenry. Diplomatic interest arose from the United States status as a nascent power. The war's central cause being the globally divisive issue of slavery aroused popular sentiment. U.S. diplomats sought to garner international support while undermining recognition for the Confederacy. In the summer of 1861, just months after the war began, a U.S. mission in Italy received hundreds of Italian volunteers. Some wore the patriotic red shirts of the Italian unification movement. Britain strongly opposed slavery yet maintained sympathy for the Confederacy. This stemmed largely from economic ties or admiration for its political hierarchy. Confederate efforts to garner British diplomatic recognition culminated in the Trent Affair. This incident nearly brought Britain to a state of war with the United States. Union recruitment posters written in Italian, French, Hungarian, and German called on Patriots of all nations to serve their adopted country. Don H. Doyle stated that the North would not have prevailed without immigrant soldiers.

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