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Elk: the story on HearLore | HearLore
Elk
The word elk originally referred to the European moose, a creature that had long vanished from the British Isles by the 17th century, leaving English speakers with a vague term for any large deer. When North American colonists encountered the massive Cervus canadensis, they applied this existing name to the new animal, creating a linguistic confusion that persists to this day. The indigenous name wapiti, derived from Shawnee and Cree words meaning white rump, offers a more precise description of the animal's distinctive light fur around the tail region. This patch is not merely decorative; it serves as a vital communication tool, fluffed up to signal agitation or distress to herd members fleeing threats, or raised by males courting females and sparring for dominance. The name elk, once used by Richard Hakluyt in 1584 to describe North American red deer, and later by John Smith in 1616, was technically incorrect from the start, as noted by Sir William Talbot in 1672 who called the animal improperly termed Elks by ignorant people. This historical misnomer highlights how early European observers struggled to categorize the vast, unfamiliar wildlife of the New World, often forcing Old World names onto New World species.
A Species Divided
For centuries, scientists classified the elk and the European red deer as a single species, Cervus elaphus, with over a dozen subspecies. However, mitochondrial DNA studies conducted in 2004 on hundreds of samples from red deer and elk subspecies fundamentally changed this understanding, proving that elk, or wapiti, should be a distinct species, namely Cervus canadensis. This genetic evidence validates that elk are more closely related to Thorold's deer and sika deer than they are to the red deer, despite the two species producing fertile offspring in captivity. The morphological differences are subtle but significant, with the elk's wider rump patch and paler-hued antlers distinguishing it from its European cousin. In New Zealand's Fiordland National Park, the free inter-breeding of elk and red deer has resulted in the disappearance of virtually all pure elk blood from the area, creating a hybrid population that threatens the genetic integrity of the original species. The fossil record shows that members of the genus Cervus first appeared 25 million years ago during the Oligocene in Eurasia, but did not appear in the North American fossil record until the early Miocene, suggesting a long evolutionary journey before the species reached the Americas.
The Biology of Bone
Elk antlers are made of bone that can grow at a rate of 25 millimeters per day, a biological feat that requires a soft layer of highly vascularized skin known as velvet to protect the developing structure. This velvet is shed in the summer when the antlers have fully developed, revealing the hard, bony structure that can weigh up to 18 kilograms for the largest Roosevelt elk subspecies. The formation and retention of antlers are testosterone-driven, and in late winter and early spring, the testosterone level drops, causing the antlers to shed. Male elk typically have around six tines on each antler, with the Siberian and North American elk carrying the largest antlers while the Altai wapiti has the smallest. The elk's thick bodies and slender legs support a shoulder height of 1.2 to 1.5 meters, with males weighing 300 to 450 kilograms and females weighing 200 to 300 kilograms. The largest of the subspecies is the Roosevelt elk, found west of the Cascade Range, where the largest males are estimated to weigh up to 700 kilograms. This massive physical presence is complemented by a seasonal coat change, with a thicker hair coat grown in the fall to insulate them during the winter, which is shed by early summer.
The scientific name of the elk species is Cervus canadensis. Mitochondrial DNA studies conducted in 2004 proved that elk should be a distinct species rather than a subspecies of the European red deer.
When did the word elk originally refer to the European moose?
The word elk originally referred to the European moose, which had long vanished from the British Isles by the 17th century. Richard Hakluyt used the term in 1584 to describe North American red deer, and John Smith used it in 1616, though Sir William Talbot noted in 1672 that the name was technically incorrect.
How fast do elk antlers grow per day?
Elk antlers grow at a rate of 25 millimeters per day. This rapid growth requires a soft layer of highly vascularized skin known as velvet to protect the developing structure until it is shed in the summer.
When did elk become extinct in Michigan and when were they reintroduced?
Elk went extinct in Michigan in 1875 and were reintroduced in 1918. The species has since been reintroduced to other states including Pennsylvania beginning in 1913 and Wisconsin, Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, Virginia, and West Virginia since the late 1990s.
What is the largest subspecies of elk and how much can it weigh?
The largest subspecies of elk is the Roosevelt elk, found west of the Cascade Range. The largest males of this subspecies are estimated to weigh up to 700 kilograms.
When was the importation of elk antler velvet banned by South Korea?
South Korea banned the importation of elk antler velvet in 2002 due to concerns about chronic wasting disease. This disease is transmitted by a misfolded protein known as a prion and has been detected throughout the elk range in North America.
During the mating season, which may begin in late August, male elk engage in ritualized behaviors that include posturing to attract females, antler-wrestling, and bugling, a loud series of throaty whistles, bellows, screams, and other vocalizations that establish dominance over other males and aim to attract females. Bugling is a high-pitched, whistle-like vocalization that can reach a frequency of 4000 Hz, achieved by blowing air from the glottis through the nasal cavities, a sound that advertises the male's fitness over great distances. Bulls defend a harem of 20 cows or more from competing bulls and predators, sometimes engaging in antler wrestling that can sustain serious injuries. A bull interacts with cows in his harem in two ways: herding and courtship. When a female wanders too far away from the harem's range, the male will rush ahead of her, block her path and aggressively rush her back to the harem. During courtship, the bull is more peaceful and approaches her with his head and antlers raised, signaling his intention to test the female for sexual receptivity by flicking his tongue. Younger, less dominant bulls, known as spike bulls, will harass unguarded cows, but are less reproductively successful and are chased away by dominant bulls.
The Long Migration
Elk migrate into areas of higher altitude in the spring, following the retreating snows, and the opposite direction in the fall, with the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem elk herds comprising as many as 40,000 individuals. During the spring and fall, they take part in the longest elk migration in the continental U.S., traveling as much as 100 kilometers between summer and winter ranges. The Teton herd consists of between 9,000 and 13,000 elk and they spend winters on the National Elk Refuge, having migrated south from the southern portions of Yellowstone National Park and west from the Shoshone and Bridger, Teton National Forests. Hunting pressure impacts migration and movement, and during the winter, they favor wooded areas for the greater availability of food to eat. Elk do not appear to benefit from thermal cover, and their migration patterns are influenced by the availability of native grasses, tree bark, sedges, forbs, and tree sprouts. The elk consume an average of 6.8 kilograms of vegetation daily, with favorites including dandelions, aster, hawkweed, violets, clover, and the occasional mushroom. Research in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem has found that supplemental feeding of concentrated alfalfa pellets leads to significant alterations in the elk's microbiome, potentially affecting their ability to efficiently digest their natural diet.
Predators and Plagues
Predators of elk include wolves, coyotes, brown and black bears, cougars, and Siberian tigers, with coyote packs mostly preying on elk calves, though they can sometimes take a winter- or disease-weakened adult. In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, bears are the most significant predators of calves while healthy bulls have never been recorded to be killed by bears and such encounters can be fatal for bears. The killing of cows in their prime is more likely to affect population growth than the killing of bulls or calves. Elk may avoid predation by switching from grazing to browsing, and living in groups also lessens the risk of an individual falling to predation. Large bull elk are less vulnerable and can afford to wander alone, while cows stay in larger groups for protection for their calves. Bulls are more vulnerable to predation by wolves in late winter, after they have been weakened by months of chasing females and fighting. Males that have recently lost their antlers are more likely to be preyed upon. At least 53 species of protist and animal parasites have been identified in elk, with Chronic wasting disease, transmitted by a misfolded protein known as a prion, affecting the brain tissue in elk, and having been detected throughout their range in North America. The disease has been detected in elk on game farms and in the wild in a number of regions, and in 2002, South Korea banned the importation of elk antler velvet due to concerns about chronic wasting disease.
The Invasive Invader
As of 2014, population figures for all North American elk subspecies were around one million, but prior to the European colonization of North America, there were an estimated 10 million on the continent. Elk were reintroduced in Michigan in 1918 after going extinct there in 1875, and the Rocky Mountain elk subspecies was reintroduced by hunter-conservation organizations into the Appalachian region of the U.S. where the now extinct eastern elk once lived. They were reintroduced to Pennsylvania beginning in 1913 and throughout the mid-20th Century, and now remain at a stable population of approximately 1,400 individuals. Since the late 1990s, they were reintroduced and recolonized in the states of Wisconsin, Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, Virginia and West Virginia. In the state of Kentucky, the elk population in 2022 had increased to over 15,000 animals. In 2016, a male elk, likely from the Smoky Mountains population in western North Carolina, was sighted in South Carolina for the first time in nearly 300 years. Once locally extinct, dispersing elk are now regularly spotted in Iowa, although a wild population has not yet established. Since 2015, elk have also been reintroduced in a number of other states, including Missouri, and introduced to the islands of Etolin and Afognak in Alaska. Reintroduction of the elk into Ontario began in the early 20th century and is ongoing with limited success.
Cultural and Commercial Value
Elk have played an important role in the cultural history of a number of peoples, with Neolithic petroglyphs from Asia depicting antler-less female elk, which have been interpreted as symbolizing life and sustenance. They were also frequently overlaid with boats and associated with rivers, suggesting they also represented paths to the underworld. Petroglyphs of elk were carved into cliffs by the Ancestral Puebloans of the southwestern U.S. hundreds of years ago. The elk was of particular importance to the Lakota and played a spiritual role in their society, with Lakota men playing a courting flute imitating a bugling elk to attract women. The Rocky Mountain elk is the official state animal of Utah, and an image of an elk and a moose appear on the state seal and flag of Michigan. The Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks chose the elk as its namesake because a number of its attributes seemed appropriate for cultivation by members of the fraternity. A male elk can produce 1.8 kilograms of antler velvet annually, and on ranches in the United States, Canada and New Zealand, it is collected and sold to markets in East Asia, where it is used in medicine. Some cultures consider antler velvet to be an aphrodisiac, and since 1967, the Boy Scouts of America have assisted employees at the National Elk Refuge in Wyoming by collecting the antlers which are shed each winter, with 80% of the proceeds returned to the refuge.