Dutch language

• 1. Origins And Etymology

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  In 786, the Bishop of Ostia wrote to Pope Adrian I about a synod taking place in Corbridge. The bishop recorded decisions written down as "in Latin as well as common vernacular" using the word teudiscus. This term derived from Proto-Germanic meaning people or nation. It functioned as an adjective-forming suffix that evolved into modern English Dutch. Early medieval usage distinguished Germanic vernaculars from Latin, the non-native language of writing and the Catholic Church. In northern West Francia during the early Middle Ages, the term acquired new meaning within a highly dichromatic linguistic landscape. It became the antonym of walhisk referring to Romance speakers specifically Old French. By the High Middle Ages, nederlant served increasingly as an umbrella term for specific Germanic dialects spoken in the Low Countries. Mobility remained largely static outside higher echelons of clergy and nobility while regional orientation provided implicit context. From 1551 onward, the designation received strong competition from low Dutch literally translating Germania Inferior. Early Dutch grammarians attempted giving their language more prestige by linking it directly to Roman times. Use of high German came into use as a Dutch exonym for various German dialects used in neighboring states. Popular throughout the sixteenth century this form ultimately lost out over during close of eighteenth century establishing itself as standard Dutch exonym for German.

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• 2. Historical Development Stages

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  Old Dutch emerged around same time as Old English Anglo-Saxon Old High German Old Frisian and Old Saxon without any developed standard languages yet existing. The division reflects contingent future contribution dialect groups would have to later languages forming perfect West Germanic continuum present at that moment. Frankish language itself not directly attested except possibly Bergakker inscription found near city of Tiel representing primary record fifth-century Frankish. Salic law document written around five hundred ten contains oldest recorded Dutch sentence meaning I say to you I free you serf used to free a serf. Another fragment reads A fish was swimming in water dating approximately seven seventy-six through eight zero zero starting Utrecht baptismal vow Forsake you devil. Most famous Old Dutch sentence probably All birds started making nests except me and what are we waiting for dated around year eleven hundred written Flemish monk convent Rochester England. Year one thousand one hundred fifty often chosen transition point marking profuse Middle Dutch writing period developing rich Medieval literature despite no overarching standard language then existing. Vowel reduction feature whereby vowels unstressed syllables leveled schwa marked notable difference between old middle forms. Political boundaries affected Middle Dutch dialect areas creating spheres linguistic influence homogenous within ruler's sphere following contemporary political divisions order importance: West Flemish County Flanders center influential earlier Middle Ages losing prestige neighboring Brabantian thirteenth century. Brabantian East Flemish spoken Duchy Brabant adjacent parts influenced most during so-called Brabantian expansion extending outward other areas Hollandic heartland County Holland originally Old Frisian adopted Low Franconian new Frankish dialect with Frisian substrate less influential until sixteenth century Eighty Years War took place Southern Netherlands this period Limburgish modern-day provinces Dutch Belgian Limburg adjacent lands Germany divergent developed literary tradition earliest influencing later standard formation.

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• 3. Dialect Continuum And Variation

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  Recent research Geert Driessen shows use dialects regional languages among both Dutch adults youth heavy decline twenty-seven percent adult population spoke regular basis nineteen ninety-five dropping single digit figures by two thousand eleven twelve children primary school age speaking now four percent officially recognized regional languages Limburgish spoken most adults fifty-four percent children thirty-one percent Dutch Low Saxon least adults fifteen percent children one percent. Decline West Frisian language Friesland occupies middle position adults forty-four percent children twenty-two percent. Cities often distinct city dialect examples Ghent very distinct g e r sounds greatly differ surrounding villages Brussels combines Brabantian words Walloon French. Some dialects historically extensions across borders German town Kleve Kleverlandish genetically Low Franconian variety North-Western France area around Calais estimated twenty thousand daily speakers Dunkirk Gravelines Bourbourg became predominantly French-speaking end nineteenth century countryside elementary schools taught Dutch Catholic Church preached catechism many parishes second half nineteenth century banned levels education Prussia France lost functions cultural language legal status neither central nor regional public authorities knowledge declining younger generations. Within Netherlands Hollandic dominates national broadcast media Flemish Brabantian dominates capacity making unofficial prestige dialects respective countries. Outside Belgium Germany France standard largely absent speakers using German French everyday speech. In South Africa largest legacy lies attracting large numbers Dutch Flemish northwest European farmer settlers quickly assimilated long isolation rest Dutch-speaking world evolved Afrikaans first newspaper Die Afrikaanse Patriot published Cape Colony eighteen seventy-six European Dutch remained literary until start nineteen twenties under pressure Afrikaner nationalism local African preferred written European-based standard constitution ninety-eight-three listed English Afrikaans official languages.

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• 4. Global Geographic Distribution

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  Dutch spoken about twenty-five million people as first language five million second third most spoken Germanic language Europe native population majority Netherlands Flanders including sixty percent Belgian population one percent EU claims speak well enough conversation. Official language South Africa replaced Afrikaans separate partially mutually intelligible daughter language fifteen sixteen million people mainly Namibia evolving Cape Dutch dialects Suriname native majority multilingual Caribbean island nations Aruba Curaçao Sint Maarten recognized Dutch official involved way Dutch Language Union. Dutch Caribbean municipalities St Eustatius Saba Bonaire official Asia used Dutch East Indies now mostly Indonesia limited educated elite around two percent total population over one million indigenous Indonesians Groeneboer K Weg tot het westen Het Nederlands voor Indie 1600, 1950 Publisher KITLEV Leiden banned 1957 lifted afterwards fifth Indonesian language traced back including many loan words Civil Code officially translated original Dutch version colonial times remains authoritative half a million native speakers reside United States Canada Australia combined historical linguistic minorities verge extinction parts France Germany. In Europe nine-six percentage Netherlands fifty-nine Belgium minority Germany northern French Flanders three four language areas divided largely monolingual Brussels bilingual produce vast majority music films books media written spoken monocentric form all speakers using same standard authorized Dutch Language Union based Green Booklet dictionary employing Latin alphabet writing pronunciation varies between dialects large dialectal continuum consisting twenty-eight main further divided at least six hundred distinguishable varieties.

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• 5. Phonological Structure And Sound Shifts

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  Unlike other Germanic languages no phonological aspiration consonants syllable structure allows fairly-complex clusters retaining full use velar fricatives Proto-Germanic lost modified many others final-obstruent devoicing neutralizing voicing distinction word obstruents pronounced voiceless example good pronounced related form gold pronounced like German noun adjective English gold golden both pronounced with. Voicing pre-vocalic initial voiceless alveolar fricatives occurs standard Dutch like German sharing only Low German development foxes oxen far more common Dutch versus craft soft but Dutch versus Low German/German and English craft Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal Nasal Plosive Fricative Approximant Rhotic Notes is not separate phoneme inserted before vowel-initial syllables within words after often also beginning realisation varies considerably from dialect even speaker area Common realisations alveolar trill tap uvular trill voiced uvular fricative approximant lateral slightly velarised postvocalically most dialects particularly north true velars uvular palatal palatal realizations common southern areas uvulars northern tendency devoice all fricatives regardless environment particularly affecting others. Vowels extensive inventory grouped back rounded front unrounded front rounded traditionally distinguished length tenseness normally considered distinctive feature because occurrence changes quality One either redundant analyses prefer treat opposition tenseness long/tense vowels still realized phonetically longer counterparts older words pair vowel length change quality new loanwords reintroduced phonemic oppositions compare suns zone sons mug cruise.

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• 6. Grammatical Systems And Syntax

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  Standard uses three genders across natural grammatical consequences few merged masculine feminine form common gender neuter remains distinct similar Continental Scandinavian tongues inflectional grammar simplified adjectival noun endings verbs tenses four main conjugational classes weak strong irregular mixed constituting about sixty percent all verbs past tense participle formed dental suffix Weak verbs with past in Weak verbs with past in Strong second numerous group characterized vowel alternation stem past perfect particule distinguishing seven classes comprising almost all internal variants half strong verbs weak past strong particule or strong past weak particule following table shows vowel alternations detail number roots bare verbs belong class variants prefix excluded ongoing process weakening strong verb experience used strictly class six strong having past particule currently also use weak forms both deemed correct examples such weakened originally strong guess bump present far less common than weakened forms most examples both formations deemed correct cases largely limited pronouns set phrases generalised dative accusative certain pronouns standard Dutch three grammatical genders few consequences merged masculine feminine form Netherlands Belgium not. Modern mostly lost case system idioms expressions continue include archaic declensions definite article two forms de den more complex English only the older inflected form dative accusative restricted numerous set surnames toponyms dialects still using particularly often instead her genitive articles bottom line commonly idiomatic plural plurals singulars genitive form pronoun that one those ones occurrences feminine singular all plurals extremely rare avoid confusion relative interrogative pronoun who has genitive forms corresponding English whose frequent use range fixed expressions make use genitive abbreviated apostrophes morning if necessary written grammar simplified over past hundred years mainly pronouns nouns adjectives not case inflected except genitive proper names.

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