Dragon
In ancient Mesopotamian art, a creature known as the muškhushu appears on the Ishtar Gate of Babylon. This draconic monster combines the body and neck of a snake with the forelegs of a lion and the hind legs of a bird. It served as a protective emblem for deities like Marduk and Nabu during the Neo-Babylonian period between 626 BC and 539 BC. Earlier versions from the Akkadian Period (2334, 2154 BC) showed similar features but sometimes included two horns and a scorpion tail. These images were not merely decorative; they represented roaring weather beasts associated with storm gods like Ishkur. The word itself means furious serpent in Akkadian. In Egyptian mythology, a giant serpentine creature named Apep resided in the Duat, the underworld. The Bremner-Rhind papyrus written around 310 BC preserves an account where Ra descends to battle this eight-man-high serpent. Thunderstorms and earthquakes were believed to be caused by Apep's roar while solar eclipses resulted from his attack on the sun boat. Another massive serpent called Nehebkau guarded the Duat and aided Ra against Apep. Some stories claimed the entire earth rested atop Nehebkau's coils.
Anthropologist David E. Jones published An Instinct for Dragons in 2000 proposing that humans inherited instinctive reactions to snakes much like monkeys do. He cited a study finding approximately thirty-nine people out of one hundred fear snakes even in areas where snakes are rare. This innate fear explains why draconic creatures appear in nearly all cultures worldwide. Jones noted dragons usually reside in dark caves deep pools wild mountain reaches sea bottoms or haunted forests places fraught with danger for early human ancestors. Adrienne Mayor argued in her book The First Fossil Hunters: Dinosaurs Mammoths and Myth in Greek and Roman Times (2000) that some dragon stories may have been inspired by ancient discoveries of fossils belonging to dinosaurs and other prehistoric animals. She suggested dragon lore in northern India might stem from observations of oversized bones in fossil beds of the Siwalik Hills below the Himalayas. Ancient Greek artistic depictions of the Monster of Troy could have been influenced by fossils of Samotherium an extinct species of giraffe common in the Mediterranean region. In China large prehistoric animal remains are frequently identified as dragon bones and used in traditional medicine. However Mayor pointed out Scandinavia has many dragon stories yet long been considered barren of large fossils. Robert Blust proposed in The Origin of Dragons (2000) that dragons arise from rational pre-scientific speculation about rainfall and drought phenomena particularly focusing on rainbows.
Chinese dragons known as loong govern rain the sea and other forms of water according to beliefs dating back to the Han dynasty onwards. They became emblems of imperial power allowing only the emperor to display them on clothing houses or personal articles until 1911 when the last Chinese emperor was overthrown. Archaeologist Zhōu Chong-Fa believes the word for dragon is an onomatopoeia of thunder sounds. Neolithic pottery and Bronze Age ritual vessels show early ancestors of these creatures. Stories describe men like Dongfu who loved dragons so much he tamed them serving Emperor Shun under the family name Huanlong meaning dragon-raiser. Another tale involves Kong Jia fourteenth emperor of Xia dynasty receiving male and female dragons but failing to train them hiring Liulei instead. When the female died unexpectedly Liulei cooked her meat secretly serving it to the king who demanded more before fleeing. Lord Ye Gao decorated his house with dragon motifs obsessively though never seeing one until a real dragon visited terrifying him into flight. In Shanhaijing compiled mostly during Han dynasty Ying Long helped Huangdi defeat tyrant Chiyou while Zhulong composed the universe with his body. Many mythic heroes were conceived after mothers copulated with divine dragons including Huangdi Shennong Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun. Rainmaking rituals invoking dragons remain common in many Chinese villages where each village has its own god said to bring rain often being dragons themselves.
The ancient Greek word drákōn usually refers to giant serpents possessing supernatural characteristics or controlled by supernatural power. Scholar Daniel Ogden characterizes it as meaning snake plus something more. The first mention occurs in Homer's Iliad describing Agamemnon having blue dragon motifs on sword belts and three-headed dragon emblems on breast plates. Hesiod wrote in seventh century BC poem Theogony about Zeus battling Typhon who had hundred serpent heads breathing fire making frightening animal noises. Apollo used poisoned arrows to slay Python causing death and pestilence around Delphi setting up his shrine there afterward. Heracles slew Lernaean Hydra multiple-headed serpent dwelling swamps of Lerna according to Bibliotheka of Pseudo-Apollodorus. By end sixth century BC agreed clubbed severed heads needed cauterization prevent growth back aided nephew Iolaus. Hera placed crab pinching Heracles foot sky constellation Cancer. One immortal head buried under heavy rock after cutting off. For Eleventh Labor Heracles procured golden apple from tree Garden Hesperides guarded enormous sleeping serpent Ladon shown with many heads earlier depictions Sophocles Euripides describe killing though unspecified methods Apollonius Rhodes epic Argonautica describes Ladon shot full poisoned arrows dipped blood Hydra. Jason killed Colchian dragon surpassing breadth length fifty-oared ship stealing Golden Fleece together Medea earliest artistic representation Attic red-figure kylix dated 480, 470 BC showing bedraggled Jason disgorged mouth Athena goddess wisdom watching.
Modern western image developed western Europe Middle Ages combining snakelike dragons classical Graeco-Roman literature Near Eastern references Bible preserved western European folk traditions. Period between eleventh thirteenth centuries represents height European interest dragons living creatures. Twelfth-century Welsh monk Geoffrey Monmouth recounts famous legend Historia Regum Britanniae child prophet Merlin witnesses Romano-Celtic warlord Vortigern attempt build tower Snowdon keep safe Anglo-Saxons tower swallowed ground Merlin informs pool two dragons sleeping underneath foundation red white immediately begin fighting prophecy white triumph over red symbolizing England conquest Wales declares red eventually return defeat white story remained popular throughout fifteenth century. Thirteenth-century Golden Legend written Latin records Saint Margaret Antioch virgin martyr tortured faith Diocletianic Persecution thrown cell confronted monstrous dragon made sign cross vanished versions actually swallowed alive making sign cross stomach emerges unharmed. Legend Saint George Dragon referenced early sixth century AD earliest artistic representations come eleventh century first full account eleventh-century Georgian text. Most famous version Golden Legend holds dragon kept pillaging sheep town Silene Libya ate young shepherd people forced placate leaving two sheep sacrificial offerings morning beside lake where lived eventually ate all sheep people started offering own children king's daughter came lottery dressed bride chained rock beside lake eaten arrived stabbed lance subdued making sign cross tying princess girdle neck led docile dragon into town promised kill if townspeople convert Christianity everyone converted killed sword some versions married princess others continued wandering.
Dragons featured many works modern literature particularly fantasy genre eighteenth century critical thinkers Denis Diderot asserted too much literature published fabulous stories dragons Lewis Carroll classic children novel Through Looking-Glass 1871 inset poem describes Jabberwock kind dragon Carroll illustrator John Tenniel famous political cartoonist humorously showed waistcoat buck teeth myopic eyes Victorian university lecturer such Carroll himself. One iconic modern dragon Smaug J.R.R. Tolkien classic novel Hobbit 1937 best-selling Harry Potter series children novels J.K. Rowling prominent works Anne McCaffrey Dragonriders Pern Ursula K. Le Guin Earthsea Cycle George R.R. Martin A Song Ice Fire Christopher Paolini Inheritance Cycle Sandra Martina Schwab writes few exceptions including McCaffrey Pern novels 2002 film Reign Fire fit medievalized setting fantasy literature than technological world science fiction called emblem fantasy hero fight emphasizes celebrates masculinity revisionist fantasies undermine traditional gender roles children literature Cressida Cowell How Train Your Series friendly powerful ally battling child fears popular role-playing game system Dungeons Dragons makes heavy use dragons.
Common questions
What is the muškhushu in ancient Mesopotamian art?
The muškhushu appears on the Ishtar Gate of Babylon as a protective emblem for deities like Marduk and Nabu during the Neo-Babylonian period between 626 BC and 539 BC. This creature combines the body and neck of a snake with the forelegs of a lion and the hind legs of a bird.
How did anthropologist David E. Jones explain human fear of snakes in An Instinct for Dragons published in 2000?
David E. Jones proposed that humans inherited instinctive reactions to snakes much like monkeys do based on a study finding approximately thirty-nine people out of one hundred fear snakes even where they are rare. He argued this innate fear explains why draconic creatures appear in nearly all cultures worldwide.
Who was Apep in Egyptian mythology and what events were attributed to his actions?
Apep resided in the Duat as a giant serpentine creature whose roar caused thunderstorms and earthquakes while his attack on the sun boat resulted in solar eclipses. The Bremner-Rhind papyrus written around 310 BC preserves an account where Ra descends to battle this eight-man-high serpent.
What role did Chinese dragons known as loong play from the Han dynasty onwards until 1911?
Chinese dragons governed rain the sea and other forms of water according to beliefs dating back to the Han dynasty onwards. They became emblems of imperial power allowing only the emperor to display them on clothing houses or personal articles until 1911 when the last Chinese emperor was overthrown.
Which ancient Greek myths feature dragons and what specific battles involved these creatures?
Ancient Greek myths include Zeus battling Typhon who had hundred serpent heads breathing fire and Heracles slaying the Lernaean Hydra dwelling swamps of Lerna. Apollo used poisoned arrows to slay Python causing death and pestilence around Delphi while Jason killed the Colchian dragon surpassing breadth length fifty-oared ship stealing Golden Fleece together Medea.