Decolonization
In 1775, the American Revolution began as thirteen North American colonies declared their independence from Great Britain. This conflict ended in 1783 with the Treaty of Paris, establishing the United States of America. The Haitian Revolution followed shortly after, starting as a revolt in 1789 and escalating into a slave uprising in 1791 within the French colony of Saint-Domingue. By 1804, Haiti secured its freedom to become the Empire of Haiti before transitioning into a republic. These early movements set a precedent for future anti-colonial struggles across the globe.
During the Napoleonic Wars, the Spanish Empire faced significant challenges to its control over American territories. Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1806 severed direct links between Madrid and its colonies, allowing regions like Latin America to declare autonomy. In 1809, independence wars began with a revolt in La Paz, Bolivia. Over the next fifteen years, conflicts raged across South America and Mexico. The Spanish forces were finally defeated at the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824, freeing the mainland. Spain lost Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Spanish-American War of 1898, though Cuba became independent in 1902 while Puerto Rico remained an unincorporated territory of the United States.
The British Empire managed decolonization through pragmatic budgetary demands and manpower constraints. Across the empire, officials convened constitutional conferences in London to discuss transitions to self-government. A bill was submitted to Parliament at Westminster to terminate UK responsibility, followed by an Order of Council fixing the exact date of independence. This process allowed former colonies like Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the Irish Free State to gain legislative independence under the Statute of Westminster in 1931.
France administered its colonies differently, often resisting full self-rule despite contributions from colonial troops during World Wars. After World War II, France adopted a new constitution creating the Fourth Republic on the 27th of October 1946, substituting the French Union for the colonial empire. Power over colonies remained concentrated in Paris with limited local assembly authority. In Madagascar, a nationalist uprising on the 29th of March 1947 led to violent repression where between 11,000 and 40,000 Malagasy died over one year of fighting. The Algerian War of Independence raged from 1954 to 1962, leaving deep trauma for both nations.
Significant violence accompanied many decolonization processes, particularly within the British Empire. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 involved massacres of civilians on both sides but was not primarily an independence movement. More severe communal violence erupted after Britain left India in 1947, breaking out between Hindus and Muslims and later between Muslims and Sikhs. This conflict resulted in the partition into independent dominions of India and Pakistan. Further communal violence broke out in 1970 within East Bengal, which became independent as Bangladesh in 1971.
Cyprus faced ethnic division between Greek and Turkish populations after gaining full British control in 1914. Ethnic violence escalated until Turkey invaded and partitioned the island in 1974. Palestine became a British mandate following World War I, leading to decades of ethno-religious violence that climaxed with the UN Partition Plan and subsequent war. France experienced similar turmoil during its colonial wars. In Vietnam, the Viet Minh launched the August Revolution in September 1946, attacking French troops in Hanoi and starting the Indochina War that lasted until 1954. Cambodia and Laos gained independence in late 1953 while Vietnam split into North and South under the Geneva Accords.
Newly independent states struggled to establish economic institutions including national currencies, banks, companies, and tax systems. Many colonies had functioned as resource colonies producing raw materials and serving as captive markets for goods manufactured by colonizing countries. The CFA franc remains a currency shared by fourteen West and Central African nations, mostly former French colonies, guaranteed by the French treasury. Some decolonized countries created regional economic associations like ASEAN or ECOWAS to promote trade among neighbors.
The end of colonial rule brought mixed economic results for both colonizers and colonized. John Kenneth Galbraith argued that post-World War II decolonization occurred largely for economic reasons rather than moral ones. The departure of India and Pakistan made only a small economic difference in the United Kingdom. Dutch economists calculated that losses from losing Indonesia were compensated by domestic post-war growth within just a couple of years. However, financial pressure could still be used to achieve goals desired by former colonizers through cheap goods and labor obtained from former colonies.
Kenyan writer Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o explored cultural and linguistic legacies of colonialism in his influential book Decolonising the Mind published in 1986. He examined how colonization affected indigenous identities and intellectual frameworks. Cinematographer Haile Gerima described experiencing what he called the "colonization of the unconscious" during childhood in Ethiopia. Children played cowboys and Indians in mountains around Gondar, identifying with heroes conquering others while never wanting the Indians to win.
Language policy became central to decolonization efforts across many regions. Linguistic decolonination entailed replacing imperial languages with indigenous tongues as official functions. Exceptions existed primarily in Eurasian colonies where this shift did not occur systematically elsewhere. In Asia, kung fu cinema emerged in the late 1960s through the 1970s depicting local populations opposing foreign imperialists and their collaborators. These films provided new narratives challenging traditional colonial perspectives on history and identity.
As of 2020, seventeen territories remained under United Nations classification as non-self-governing territories despite decades of decolonization efforts. The UN Charter Chapter XI defines these areas as places whose people have not yet attained full self-government. Lists include Anguilla, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Falkland Islands, Montserrat, Saint Helena, Turks and Caicos Islands, Gibraltar, Pitcairn, American Samoa, US Virgin Islands, Guam, Tokelau, Western Sahara, New Caledonia, and French Polynesia.
The sovereignty of the Chagos Archipelago remains disputed between the UK and Mauritius. An International Court of Justice ruling in February 2019 stated that the UK must transfer the islands to Mauritius since they were not legally separated from it in 1965. Mauritian Prime Minister Pravind Jugnauth described British and American responses to the dispute as hypocritical in October 2020. On the 10th of December 2010, the UN published an official decree announcing a Third International Decade for Eradicating Colonialism calling on member states to speed up processes toward complete elimination.
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Common questions
When did the American Revolution begin and end?
The American Revolution began in 1775 when thirteen North American colonies declared their independence from Great Britain. This conflict ended in 1783 with the Treaty of Paris, which established the United States of America.
What were the dates of the Haitian Revolution and when did Haiti become independent?
The Haitian Revolution started as a revolt in 1789 and escalated into a slave uprising in 1791 within the French colony of Saint-Domingue. By 1804, Haiti secured its freedom to become the Empire of Haiti before transitioning into a republic.
How did France administer decolonization after World War II?
After World War II, France adopted a new constitution creating the Fourth Republic on the 27th of October 1946, substituting the French Union for the colonial empire. Power over colonies remained concentrated in Paris with limited local assembly authority.
Why did India gain independence in 1947 and what followed?
Britain left India in 1947, resulting in severe communal violence that erupted between Hindus and Muslims and later between Muslims and Sikhs. This conflict resulted in the partition into independent dominions of India and Pakistan.
Which territories remain under United Nations classification as non-self-governing territories as of 2020?
As of 2020, seventeen territories remained under United Nations classification as non-self-governing territories despite decades of decolonization efforts. These areas include Anguilla, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Falkland Islands, Montserrat, Saint Helena, Turks and Caicos Islands, Gibraltar, Pitcairn, American Samoa, US Virgin Islands, Guam, Tokelau, Western Sahara, New Caledonia, and French Polynesia.