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Adapted from Communist Party of Indonesia, licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0. Modified for audio. This HearLore entry is also licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.

— Ch. 1 · Foundations And Early Growth —

Communist Party of Indonesia.

~8 min read · Ch. 1 of 8
In 1914, a Dutch socialist named Henk Sneevliet stood in Surabaya and founded the Indies Social Democratic Association. This group began with only three Indonesian members among eighty-five total participants. The organization published Het Vrije Woord, a Dutch-language newspaper edited by Adolf Baars, starting in October of that year. Sneevliet moved the headquarters to Semarang, where the party attracted many Indonesians from other radical movements. By 1917, the association had split into two factions after reformists formed the Indies Social Democratic Party. The remaining radicals launched Soeara Merdeka, their first publication written in the Indonesian language. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Sneevliet gained support among Dutch sailors and soldiers, causing colonial authorities to force him out of the country in 1920. The ISDV then infiltrated Sarekat Islam, the largest Islamic organization in the region, using a strategy called block within. Communist agents like Semaun and Darsono successfully influenced thousands of members within this religious group. When several Dutch cadres left involuntarily, the membership shifted from being majority-Dutch to majority-Indonesian. At a congress held on the 23rd of May 1920, the group changed its name to Perserikatan Komunis di Hindia. Semaun became chairman while Darsono took the role of vice-chairman. The highest committee remained predominantly Dutch at this stage.

Revolutionary Uprisings And Repression

A plenary session in May 1925 ordered Indonesian communists to form an anti-imperialist coalition with nationalist groups. Extremist leaders Alimin and Musso demanded immediate revolution against the Dutch government. A conference in Prambanan decided that railroad workers would strike first to trigger a general uprising. The plan collapsed when security forces arrested PKI members early in 1926. Tan Malaka disagreed with the timing because he believed the party lacked sufficient mass support. Dissention among leaders caused the revolution to be postponed until June 1926. On November 12, limited revolts began in Batavia, Padang, Bantam, and Surabaya. Government forces crushed the Batavia revolt within two days and quashed others within weeks. Colonial authorities arrested thirteen thousand people following the failed attempt. Four thousand five hundred individuals were imprisoned while one thousand three hundred were interned. Eight hundred twenty-three people were exiled to the Boven-Digoel camp in Western New Guinea. Several died during captivity while many non-communist activists were also targeted under false pretenses. The Dutch East Indies government outlawed the party in 1927. Musso returned from Moscow exile in 1935 to reorganize the underground branch but his stay was brief. Leadership figures like Djokosoedjono were soon arrested and sent to the same exile camp. Remnants worked on various fronts including Gerindo and trade unions.

Post-Independence Political Ascendancy

The Communist Party of Indonesia re-emerged after Japan surrendered in 1945. Many armed units came under PKI control or influence during the Indonesian National Awakening. President Sukarno grew concerned that the party's expanding power would threaten his position. In February 1948, the PKI formed a joint front called People's Democratic Front with the Socialist Party. Pesindo militias eventually fell under PKI command before the alliance dissolved. D. N. Aidit became General Secretary in January 1951 when the Central Committee met. Membership numbers jumped from five thousand in 1950 to one hundred sixty-five thousand by 1954. By 1959, the party counted one point five million members across the archipelago. Militant strikes led by the PKI occurred in August 1951 followed by clampdowns in Medan and Jakarta. The leadership briefly went underground during these confrontations. Aidit considered cooperation with the Indonesian National Party to overthrow Mohammad Natsir's cabinet. The party finished fourth in the 1955 legislative election with sixteen percent of the national vote. They won thirty-nine seats out of two hundred fifty-seven available positions. Almost thirty percent of votes cast in East Java went to the PKI. Richard Nixon, then vice president, stated that democratic government was probably not best for Indonesia due to the party's organization.

The Madiun Affair And Civil Conflict

Musso returned to Jakarta on the 11th of August 1948 after twelve years in Soviet exile. The PKI politburo reconstructed itself including D. N. Aidit, M. H. Lukman, and Njoto. Guerrilla units under PKI influence were ordered to disband following the Renville Agreement signed earlier that year. In Madiun, a group of military personnel refused to disarm and clashed with republican forces in September. Army sources claimed the PKI proclaimed a Soviet Republic of Indonesia on September 18 with Musso as president. Amir Sjarifuddin served as prime minister according to these reports. The uprising was suppressed by republican troops while thousands of members were killed. Thirty-six thousand people were imprisoned during the crackdown. Musso died on October 31 allegedly while trying to escape from prison. Aidit and Lukman fled into exile in China but the party remained unbanned. Reconstruction began in 1949 despite the violence. The PKI published Harian Rakyat and Bintang Merah throughout the 1950s alongside quarterly journals. Party leaders like Aidit and Revang met with international communist figures in East Berlin in July 1958.

Guided Democracy And Mass Mobilization

Sukarno introduced Nasakom policy combining nationalism, religion, and communism in 1960. The PKI welcomed this multi-class united front as a junior partner role. Membership reached about three million by 1965 making it the strongest communist party outside China and the Soviet Union. Total membership including front organizations claimed one-fifth of the Indonesian population. Central All-Indonesian Workers Organization controlled trade unions while People's Youth mobilized young supporters. Gerwani organized women and Barisan Tani represented peasants across rural areas. Lembaga Kebudajaan Rakjat handled cultural work while Himpunan Sardjana Indonesia managed scholars. In March 1962, Aidit and Njoto became advisory ministers within Sukarno's government. The party held its congress the following month. PKI militants entered Malaysian Borneo fighting British, Australian, New Zealand, and Malaysian forces during Konfrontasi. Most combat units operated along border regions where planning to join struggles on the Malay Peninsula failed. About two thousand members began military training near Halim Air Force Base in July 1964. Demonstrators sieged the U.S. consulate in Surabaya for two days starting September 8. Aidit addressed a rally on September 14 urging alertness for coming events.

The Thirty September Movement And Coup

During the night of September 30 and October 1, six top army generals were killed and thrown down a well. Killers announced a Revolutionary Council called the 30th of September Movement seized power the next morning. General Suharto took control of the army and put down the abortive coup by October 2. The army quickly blamed the PKI for the assassinations despite inconclusive evidence linking them directly. Speculation arose that Suharto organized parts or all of the events himself. An estimated five hundred thousand communists and suspected sympathizers died in the purge. Suharto outmaneuvered Sukarno politically before being appointed president in 1968. On October 2, the Halim base was recaptured by loyalist troops. Harian Rakyat published an article supporting G30S while official party lines claimed it was internal armed forces business. Njoto attended Sukarno's cabinet meeting on October 6 but was arrested immediately after. A mass demonstration demanded banning the PKI two days later while their main office burned down. Ansor Youth Movement held anti-PKI rallies across Java killing about one hundred members five days later. Aidit was captured on November 22 and summarily executed by the army. Special military courts tried jailed members while Aceh was declared cleared of communists in December.

Systematic Purge And Genocide

Between one hundred thousand and two million Indonesians were killed during the mass killings following 1965. Victims included non-communists slain due to mistaken identity or guilt by association. Scholars suggest at least five hundred thousand deaths occurred though exact figures remain impossible to pinpoint. The United States supplied economic, technical, and military aid when killings began. U.S. embassy officials provided kill lists containing names of thousands of suspected high-ranking PKI members. Declassified diplomatic cables released in 2017 corroborated that American backed the Indonesian military knowing they embarked upon mass killings. Bali suffered heavily with approximately eighty thousand people estimated dead representing five percent of its population. Moslem bands placed heads of victims on poles and paraded them through villages in rural East Java. Small rivers and streams became clogged with bodies creating serious sanitation problems in humid regions. Some scholars argue panic caused events while others point to political uncertainty as primary drivers. Members of the criminal underworld received permission to engage in acts of violence against perceived enemies. Military operations Sapu I, Sapu II, and Sapu III crushed PGRS/PARAKU and affiliated PKI groups in West Kalimantan. Ethnic cleansing against Chinese communities in interior Kalimantan remains suspected by some observers.

Exile And Modern Legacy

The party remained paralyzed after initial sporadic resistance following the 1965-1966 killings. Leadership was crippled leaving former supporters disillusioned and disorganized. A September 1966 statement criticized previous cooperation with Sukarno's regime. Sudisman took over leadership after Aidit and Njoto were killed but made little progress before capture in December 1966. He was sentenced to death in 1967. Sofyan and colleagues met members of PGRS/Paraku in Sanggau Ledo subdistrict planning joint military offensive in April 1967. About thirty PGRS members under Huang Han and Lim Yen Hwa joined Sofyan's group in Sanggau Ledo. Violence erupted in Blitar in March 1968 when local peasants attacked Nahdlatul Ulama members killing about sixty. The military crushed this enclave by mid-1968 despite being unaware of its existence earlier. Some delegates traveled to China while others studied in Albania during the crackdown. Former members remained blacklisted from government jobs for decades. Abdurrahman Wahid invited exiles back to Indonesia in 1999 proposing removal of restrictions on communist ideology discussion. An April 2000 protest saw ten thousand people rally against Wahid's proposal in Jakarta. Conservative Islamic groups vigorously opposed removing the ban citing original constitution provisions.

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Common questions

When was the Communist Party of Indonesia founded and by whom?

The Communist Party of Indonesia traces its origins to 1914 when Dutch socialist Henk Sneevliet founded the Indies Social Democratic Association in Surabaya. The organization initially included only three Indonesian members among eighty-five total participants before evolving into a communist party.

What happened during the failed PKI uprising in 1926 and what were the consequences for members?

Government forces crushed revolts that began on the 12th of November 1926, in Batavia, Padang, Bantam, and Surabaya within days or weeks. Colonial authorities arrested thirteen thousand people resulting in four thousand five hundred imprisonments, one thousand three hundred internments, and eight hundred twenty-three exiles to the Boven-Digoel camp in Western New Guinea.

How did membership numbers change for the Communist Party of Indonesia between 1950 and 1965?

Membership jumped from five thousand in 1950 to one hundred sixty-five thousand by 1954 and reached about three million by 1965. This growth made it the strongest communist party outside China and the Soviet Union with front organizations claiming one-fifth of the Indonesian population.

Who was responsible for the mass killings following the 30th of September Movement in 1965?

General Suharto took control of the army and put down the abortive coup by October 2 while blaming the Communist Party of Indonesia for the assassinations despite inconclusive evidence. An estimated five hundred thousand communists and suspected sympathizers died during the purge initiated after the night of September 30 and October 1.

What role did the United States play in the anti-communist purges in Indonesia after 1965?

The United States supplied economic technical and military aid when killings began and embassy officials provided kill lists containing names of thousands of suspected high-ranking PKI members. Declassified diplomatic cables released in 2017 corroborated that American backed the Indonesian military knowing they embarked upon mass killings.

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