Christianization of Scandinavia

• 1. Early Missionary Efforts

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  In the year 710, a monk named Willibrord stood in Schleswig, then part of Denmark, and preached to King Ongendus. The king listened with respect but showed no interest in abandoning his old gods. Willibrord took thirty young men back to Frisia, perhaps hoping to educate them for future service. A century later, in 823, Archbishop Ebbo of Reims baptized a few people during a visit to Denmark. He returned twice more without recorded success. In 826, Harald Klak, King of Jutland, fled his homeland after being forced out by Horik I. He sought help from Emperor Louis I of Germany. Louis offered him the title of Duke of Frisia if he would abandon the old gods. Harald agreed, and four hundred Danes with him were baptized at Ingelheim am Rhein. Ansgar accompanied Harald back to Jutland to oversee Christianity among the converts. When Harald was driven out again, Ansgar turned his attention to Sweden. He traveled to Birka in 829 and established a small Christian community there. His most important convert was Herigar, a town prefect and counselor to the king. In 831, the Archdiocese of Hamburg was founded to take responsibility for proselytizing Scandinavia. Horik I sacked Hamburg in 845, forcing the seat of the archdiocese to move to Bremen. That same year, a pagan uprising in Birka resulted in the martyrdom of Nithard and forced Bishop Gautbert to flee. Ansgar returned to Birka in 854 and to Denmark in 860 to reestablish some gains. He won the trust of King Horik II, who gave him land in Hedeby for the first Christian chapel. A second church was founded later in Ribe on Denmark's west coast. Ribe became an important trading town, and southern Denmark was made a diocese in 948 under its first bishop, St. Leofdag, who was murdered that year while crossing the Ribe River.

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• 2. Royal Conversion Strategies

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  Harald Bluetooth declared around AD 965 that he had made the Danes Christian and raised the larger of two Jelling Stones to commemorate it. The stone bears an inscription claiming this conversion. Harald Klak was the first Danish king to convert, baptizing himself during exile to receive support from Louis the Pious. However, historian Sanmark considers his impact minor since he likely never returned home. Christianity gained strong hold only after Harald Bluetooth converted around 960. Reports say Frisian monk Poppo held a fire-heated lump of iron without injury, convincing the king. Harald's daughter Gunhilde and son Sweyn Forkbeard were baptized too. German histories record Harald being baptized in the presence of Emperor Otto I, Sweyn Forkbeard's godfather. One consequence was that Danish kings abandoned the old royal enclosure at Jelling and moved their residence to Roskilde on Zealand. Sweyn rebelled against his father, spending vast time and money raising the great stone at Jelling. King Harald asked a traveler if they had seen human beings move such a heavy load. A traveler replied that Sweyn had dragged all of Denmark away from him. Several battles brought the rebellion to stalemate until 985 when Harald was wounded by an arrow and died in Jomsborg. In Norway, Olaf Tryggvason became King Olaf I in 995. He used every means available to convert the country. He raided European cities before meeting a Christian seer on the Isles of Scilly in 986. After recovering from wounds sustained during a mutiny, he let himself be baptized. He stopped raiding Christian cities and lived in England and Ireland. When he returned to Norway, Haakon Jarl faced a revolt. Olaf convinced rebels to accept him as king. Haakon Jarl was later betrayed and killed by his own slave while hiding in a pig sty. Olaf expanded efforts to Norse settlements in the west, crediting himself with Christianizing the Faroes, Orkney, Shetland, Iceland, and Greenland.

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• 3. Syncretism And Cultural Blending

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  Danes did not worship stone or wooden idols like north Germans or some Swedes. Missionaries could not simply destroy images to prove Christ superior. Great religious sites at Viborg, Lejre, Lund, and Odense were also locations for Denmark's great assembly places known as landsting. Sacred springs, magnificent beech groves, and isolated hilltops often held religious significance. Missionaries asked to build chapels in those places. Over time, the religious significance transferred itself to the chapel. Families living close to the earth left offerings just as they had before to avoid offending local spirits called landvætter. Sacred springs became consecrated to one of the local saints associated with the spring. Life went on much as it had before. Christian missionaries helped the process by locating churches on or near sacred places, sometimes using wood from sacred groves for church construction. Thor's hammer sign was easily absorbed by the cross. Rune-stones originally associated with paganism later came inscribed with Christian imagery. These stones exemplified the flexibility required of both native traditions and Christianity throughout mass conversion. The double barrow of Gorm and Queen Thyra at Jelling contained a mixture of pagan and Christian iconography including a decorated silver cup. Ebbo is the name of a mythical Nordic figure Ibor who turns against Aesir gods. Stories integrate themes of peasant birth and migration into Christian narratives. A syncretized variant of Harald's story appears in Book Nine of Saxo Grammaticus' Gesta Danorum where he battles Ragnar Lodbrok to establish Christianity.

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• 4. Establishment Of Ecclesiastical Structures

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  The supremacy of the archdiocese of Hamburg-Bremen over ecclesiastical life gradually declined as the papacy involved itself more directly with the North. Pope Gregory VII initiated this shift. A significant step was the foundation of an archbishopric for all Scandinavia at Lund between 1103 and 1104. Denmark established its own archdiocese responsible directly to the pope in 1104. Norway followed suit when Nicholas Breakspear, later Pope Adrian IV, visited from 1152 to 1154. He set out a church structure for Norway. The Papal bull confirming establishment of a Norwegian archdiocese at Nidaros bears date the 30th of November 1154. Sweden saw an episcopal see established at Skara near Husaby around 1000 by Olof Skötkonung. Another episcopal see appeared at Sigtuna in the 1060s by King Stenkil according to Adam of Bremen. This seat moved to Gamla Uppsala sometime between 1134 and 1140. By papal initiative, an archdiocese for Sweden was established at Uppsala in 1164. The realms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden established their own archdioceses in 1104, 1154, and 1164 respectively. Thirteenth-century runic inscriptions from Bergen show little Christian influence with one appealing to a Valkyrie.

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• 5. Regional Variations In Conversion

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  The spread of Christianity in Denmark occurred intermittently. Danes encountered Christians during Viking raids from the 9th century to the 1060s. Local chiefs determined attitudes toward Christianity for clan and kinsmen. Bringing Christian slaves or future wives back from raids brought ordinary Danes into close contact with Christians. In Norway, King Haakon the Good made first recorded attempts in the tenth century but met little success. Harald Greyhide destroyed pagan temples but did not popularize Christianity. Haakon Sigurdsson Jarl led a revival of paganism rebuilding temples. When Harold I of Denmark attempted to force Christianity around 975, Haakon broke allegiance. A Danish invasion force was defeated at Battle of Hjörungavágr in 986. On Gotland, Gutalagen law book remained officially in use from 1220s until 1595 though practice continued until 1645 stating blóts punishable by fine. In Jämtland, Austmaðr Christianized region on Frösö Runestone raised between 1030 and 1050. He is believed lawspeaker of Jamtamót thing. Sigmundur Brestisson became first Faroe-man converting to faith under Olaf Tryggvason decree. He read decree to Alting in Tórshavn nearly killed by angry mob. Tróndur í Gøtu attacked Sigmundur by night at Skúvoy yard causing Sigmundur to flee swimming to Sandvík where farmer killed him stealing golden arm ring. Iceland saw tension between Christian and pagan factions following King Olaf I taking hostages. Violent clashes avoided when Althing decided arbitration would go to Þorgeir Ljósvetningagoði leader of pagan faction. He opted after day and night meditation that country should convert as whole while private pagan worship tolerated.

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• 6. Violence And Resistance To Change

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  In the 1080s conflict arose between Blot-Sweyn and Inge the Elder. Inge decided to end traditional pagan sacrifices at Uppsala causing public counter-reaction. Inge forced into exile while brother-in-law Blot-Sweyn elected king allowing sacrifices to continue. After three years Inge returned secretly to Sweden arriving at Old Uppsala surrounding hall with húskarls setting hall on fire slaying king escaping burning house. Hervarar saga reports Inge completed Christianization though Heimskringla suggests disposing yet another pagan king Eric of Good Harvests. Archaeological excavations of burial sites on Lovön near Stockholm show actual Christianization took 150 to 200 years. St. Canute IV murdered inside St. Albans Church in 1086 after nobles and peasants rebelled enforcing tithe for new monasteries. Institutions and tax considered foreign influences leading to death of king, brother Prince Benedict, and seventeen housecarls. Haakon Jarl killed by own slave hiding in pig sty during Olaf Tryggvason's reign. Sigmundur Brestisson killed by farmer stealing golden arm ring after fleeing attack. Tróndur í Gøtu attacked Sigmundur by night at Skúvoy yard. Norwegian invasion of Västergötland by Magnus Barefoot tested Inge relationship with subjects. He mustered most Swedish leidang, 3,600 men ousting occupation force.

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• 7. Long Term Secular Legacy

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  A 2009 research article by Phil Zuckerman showed Scandinavian countries like Denmark and Sweden among least religious nations worldwide. Many Danes and Swedes profess belief in something though not necessarily God of Bible. Historical developments crucially informing state of irreligiosity. Last pagans converted in Greenland starting 1721 Danish-Norwegian colony objective converting inhabitants. Efforts made Norway and Sweden convert Sámi remaining pagan long after neighbors conversion. Some Sámi remained unconverted until 18th century. From time until 1536 when Denmark became Lutheran country under King or Queen titular head Folkekirke struggle between power king nobles church defined much course Danish history. Christianity gained foothold Finland during 9th century strengthened Catholic church growing Swedish influence 12th century Finnish crusade Birger Jarl 13th century Finland part Sweden until 19th century. Archaeological evidence suggests actual Christianization people very slow taking at least 150 to 200 years on Lovön island near Stockholm. Thirteenth-century runic inscriptions Bergen show little Christian influence appealing Valkyrie. Many converted sought help Catholic missionaries using traditional means often associated religious past leading integration Christian pagan cultural symbols throughout years conversion.

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