Chinese Civil War

• 1. Origins And United Fronts

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  In 1923, Sun Yat-sen and Soviet representative Adolph Joffe met in Shanghai to sign the Sun, Joffe Manifesto. This declaration pledged Soviet assistance for China's unification among the Comintern, Kuomintang, and Chinese Communist Party. Mikhail Borodin arrived that same year to help reorganize both parties along lines similar to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The CCP started as a small study group with only 300 members in 1922. By 1925, membership had grown to just 1,500 people. Meanwhile, the KMT held 50,000 members at that time. Chiang Kai-shek studied military tactics in Moscow under Soviet guidance before becoming head of the Whampoa Military Academy. The academy received teaching materials, organization, and munitions from the Soviets. Many CCP members joined the KMT individually, including Zhou Enlai who served as a political instructor. After Sun died in 1925, the KMT split into left- and right-wing movements. KMT members grew worried that Soviets were trying to destroy their party from within using the CCP. In March 1927, the KMT held its second party meeting where Soviets helped pass resolutions against the Northern Expedition. They also moved to curb Chiang's power. Soon the KMT became clearly divided between factions. Early 1927 saw the KMT, CCP rivalry lead to a split in revolutionary ranks. The CCP and left wing of the KMT decided to move the government seat from Guangzhou to Wuhan. There communist influence was strong. However, Chiang and Li Zongren moved eastward toward Jiangxi with armies that defeated warlord Sun Chuanfang. The leftists rejected Chiang's demand to eliminate Communist influence within the KMT. Chiang denounced them for betraying Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People by taking orders from the Soviet Union. On the 7th of April 1927, Chiang and several other KMT leaders held a meeting proposing that Communist activities were socially and economically disruptive. They believed these activities had to be undone for the Nationalist revolution to proceed.

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• 2. The Long March And Survival

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  October 1934 marked when the CCP took advantage of gaps in the ring of blockhouses surrounding their territory. Warlord armies reluctant to challenge Communist forces did not pursue the CCP with much fervor. Main KMT forces were preoccupied with annihilating Zhang Guotao's army which was much larger than Mao's. The massive military retreat lasted a year and covered what Mao estimated as 12,500 kilometers or 25,000 li. This became known as the Long March. Over the course of the march from Jiangxi, the First Front Army led by an inexperienced military commission faced annihilation by Chiang Kai-shek's troops. Their stronghold was located in Jiangxi province. Communists under command of Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai escaped in a circling retreat to west and north. This route reportedly traversed over 370 days through some of most difficult terrain of western China. In November 1935, shortly after settling in northern Shaanxi, Mao officially took over Zhou Enlai's leading position in Red Army. Following major reshuffling of official roles, Mao became chairman of Military Commission with Zhou and Deng Xiaoping as vice-chairmen. This marked Mao's position as preeminent leader of CCP with Zhou second to him. The march ended when CCP reached interior of Shaanxi. Zhang Guotao's army taking different route through northwest China was largely destroyed by forces of Chiang Kai-shek and his Chinese Muslim allies called Ma clique. Along way Communist army confiscated property and weapons from local warlords and landlords while recruiting peasants and poor people. Of 90,000 to 100,000 people who began Long March from Soviet Chinese Republic, only around 7,000 to 8,000 made it to Shaanxi. Remnants of Zhang's forces eventually joined Mao in Shaanxi but with his army destroyed, Zhang never able to challenge Mao's authority. Essentially great retreat made Mao undisputed leader of Chinese Communist Party. Kuomintang used Khampa troops who were former bandits to battle Communist Red Army as it advanced. KMT enlisted 300 Khampa bandits into Consolatory Commission military in Sichuan where they helped central government penetrate and destabilize local Han warlords such as Liu Wenhui.

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• 3. Japanese Invasion And Second Front

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  In 1931 Empire of Japan invaded Manchuria though Japanese expansionism did not immediately lead cessation of hostilities between civil war factions. Chiang believed Japanese were disease of skin while Communists were disease of heart. He ordered general in Manchuria not resist Japanese advance instead focusing on continuing encirclement campaigns south. This policy called first internal pacification then external resistance. CCP reacted with disdain to Chiang's nonresistance policy viewing him as pawn of Japanese. They saw fighting Nationalist government essential part of resistance to Japan calling for Resisting Japan Opposing Chiang. By late 1932 Communist guerrilla groups in Manchuria began cooperate with Nationalist guerrillas against Japanese occupiers. CCP also came under pressure from Soviet Union negotiate end civil war. USSR concerned with events Europe especially Hitler rise power wanted Communist parties form united fronts moderates resist fascist aggression. Policy formally adopted by 7th World Congress Comintern summer 1935. CCP delegation at Congress headed Wang Ming published August 1 Declaration describing how united front could created China. They recommended government national defense including all parties China wanting resist Japanese imperialism. Importantly because still considered Chiang running dog Japanese, they did not extend offer Nationalist government. CCP middle Long March during Comintern Congress cut off radio communication Moscow. Leaders learned Congress decisions November 1935 following month held conference Wayaobu discuss implications new Comintern policy. Wayaobu Manifesto published significant retreat hardline positions held early civil war. It called most broad national united front resist Japan announced CCP willing suspend class conflict interests cross-class collaboration. However did not intend Chinese Red Army surrender submit Nationalists. On contrary plan resist Japanese centered expanding Red Army 1 million men dramatically increasing land area covered Chinese Soviet Republic. Late 1935 relations Nanjing Tokyo took sharp downturn Japan stepped expansionist policies north China. Chiang Kai-shek feared full-scale invasion China imminent wanted secure material diplomatic support Soviet Union. He faced growing public pressure actively resist Japan. the 9th of December 1935 major student protest broke out Beiping. January Chiang sent emissaries Moscow negotiate military mutual assistance treaty. As precondition treaty Chiang wanted Soviet Union order CCP submit Nationalist Government. Soviet ambassador told Chiang while USSR hoped CCP agree unified command under Nationalists, Chiang would have to negotiate directly CCP. This upset Chiang worried if USSR unwilling order CCP stop might be willing support further revolutionary actions CCP ceasefire broke down.

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• 4. Post-War Power Struggles

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  In closing period war both Communist radio broadcast from Yan'an and Nationalist radio broadcasts Chongqing issued competing instructions Japanese forces surrender them. Rush Communists Nationalists secure control formerly Japanese-occupied areas China resulted. Under terms Japanese unconditional surrender dictated Allies, Japanese troops were to surrender KMT troops not CCP present some occupied areas well. Manchuria however where KMT had no forces, Japanese surrendered Soviet Union. Chiang Kai-shek reminded Japanese troops remain posts receive KMT but Communist forces soon began taking surrenders Japanese fighting those resisted. General Wedemeyer United States Army became alarmed developments wanted seven American divisions sent China. General Marshall replied should not given priority over Japan Korea. First post-war peace negotiation attended both Chiang Kai-shek Mao Zedong Chongqing August 28 the 10th of October 1945. Chiang entered meeting advantage recently signed friendly treaty Soviet Union while Communists still forcing Japanese surrender places. Mao accompanied American ambassador Patrick J. Hurley devoted Chiang also wanted ensure Mao's safety light past history between two Chinese leaders. It concluded signing Double Tenth Agreement. Both sides stressed importance peaceful reconstruction conference did produce concrete results. Battles between two sides continued even peace negotiations progress until agreement reached January 1946. However large campaigns full-scale confrontations between CCP Chiang's troops temporarily avoided. the 26th of November 1945 Hurley resigned viewing Chiang having gone against agreement Communists. December 1945 Hurley former position filled Marshall. Last month World War II East Asia Soviet forces launched huge Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation against Japanese Kwantung Army Manchuria along Chinese-Mongolian border. This operation destroyed Kwantung Army just three weeks left USSR occupying all Manchuria end war total power vacuum local Chinese forces. Consequently 700,000 Japanese troops stationed region surrendered. Later year Chiang Kai-shek realized lacked resources prevent CCP takeover Manchuria following scheduled Soviet departure. He therefore made deal Soviets delay withdrawal moved enough best-trained men modern materiel into region. However Soviets refused permission Nationalist troops traverse territory spent extra time systematically dismantling extensive Manchurian industrial base worth up 2 billion dollars shipping back war-ravaged country. KMT troops then airlifted US occupy key cities North China while countryside already dominated CCP. the 15th of November 1945 KMT began campaign prevent CCP strengthening already strong base. At same time however return KMT also brought widespread graft corruption OSS officer remarking only winners were Communists.

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• 5. Decisive Campaigns Of Liberation

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  From June September 1947 Communists launched offensives Nationalist-controlled areas became primary battlefields. the 30th of June 1947 CCP troops crossed Yellow River moved Dabie Mountains area restored developed Central Plain. Crossing ruined Nationalists plans use river defense line. At same time Communist forces began counterattack Northeastern China North China East China. Period August 1948 October 1949 included three most significant Communist military campaigns civil war: Liaoshen Campaign northeast China, Huaihai Campaign east China, Pingjin Campaign Beijing-Tianjin. Liaoshen campaign launched the 12th of September 1948 led Lin Biao. Main focus campaign Jinzhou. October 14 Communists launched all-out assault captured city 24 hours. Most 90,000 Nationalists casualties this battle incorporated Communist ranks. Siege Changchun ended October 19 when Nationalist garrison surrendered. November 1 Communists captured Shenyang. Late 1948 CCP taken control Northeast through decisive Liaoshen Campaign. Capture large KMT units provided CCP tanks heavy artillery combined-arms assets needed execute offensive operations south Great Wall. April 1948 city Luoyang fell cutting KMT army off Xi'an. Following fierce battle CCP captured Jinan Shandong province the 24th of September 1948. During period Battle Weixian took place important battle CCP liberate Shandong. Through Weixian Campaign CCP controlled Jiaoji Railway cut connection Jinan Qingdao. Huaihai Campaign late 1948 early 1949 secured east-central China CCP. Largest military operation civil war. Large number KMT troops deserted changed sides conflicts. Outcome encounters decisive military outcome civil war. Pingjin campaign lasted 64 days November 21 the 31st of January 1949. PLA suffered heavy casualties securing Zhangjiakou Tianjin along port garrison Dagu Beiping. CCP brought 890,000 troops northeast oppose some 600,000 KMT troops. There were 40,000 CCP casualties Zhangjiakou alone. They in turn killed wounded captured some 520,000 KMT troops during campaign. January 1949 Beiping changed hands negotiated settlement Nationalist forces Fu Zuoyi surrendered city engaging warfare. KMT defeat Pingjin campaign ended ability effective large-scale fighting force mainland.

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• 6. Collapse And Retreat To Taiwan

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  In March 1949 troops 19th CCP Corps marched towards Taiyuan. January 1949 Liaoshen Huaihai Pingjin Compaign ended successfully CCP. While Communists achieved decisive victories final stages war, Nationalist forces continued resist number key cities strongholds. At time still more than 100,000 KMT defenders Taiyuan capital Shanxi Province directly controlled direct subordinates then Premier Yan Xishan though himself evacuated south desperately resisting refused surrender. By 1949 sustained casualties reduced number Japanese soldiers under command approximately 3,000. April 1949 PLA launched final general attack Taiyuan defenders Taiyuan Campaign culminating capture provincial capital last isolated land North prolonged siege. Battle Taiyuan lasted more six months regarded Chinese Communist Party official historical record longest largest most intense most costly urban siege battle Chinese Civil War terms duration number combatants intensity fighting casualties. Early morning April 24 support more than 1,300 artillery pieces continuously bombarded Taiyuan city wall 20th Corps first broke through city wall. 18th 19th Corps successively entered city started street fighting defenders. By 9:30 AM PLA occupied Shanxi Governor's Mansion. By 10:00 Taiyuan defenders completely wiped out. CCP records stated more than 130,000 KMT defenders killed 45,000 CCP soldiers fell battle more than 3,400 cannons more than 32,000 guns large amount military supplies seized. Final moments before city completely fell group senior Nationalist military civilian officials carried mass suicide including Liang Huazhi Acting Governor Shanxi Yan Huiqing close cousin Premier Yan regarded family younger sister commander Yan's Japanese troops Imamura Hosaku. Xu Duan Director Statistics Bureau Shanxi Provincial Government commander Special Gendarmerie Yin Zundang Administrative Inspector Shanxi First District led subordinates resistance positions overrun collectively took poison burned building destroying bodies. Shi Zecheng Chief Taiyuan Municipal Police Bureau fought forces killing wife children taking own life. Zhao Liankui commander Special Service Battalion Taiyuan Pacification Headquarters led final defense exhausting all resistance unit destroyed weapons committed collective suicide hand grenades. Eve Yan Huiqing suicide poisoning drafted Last Farewell Telegram refined Wu Shaozhi Secretary-General Shanxi Provincial Government transmitted Yan Xishan KMT central government.

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• 7. Aftermath And Cold War Dynamics

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  the 1st of October 1949 Mao Zedong officially proclaimed People Republic China capital Beiping returned former name Beijing. Chiang Kai-shek approximately two million Nationalist soldiers retreated mainland China island Taiwan December PLA advanced Sichuan province. Isolated Nationalist pockets resistance remained area majority resistance collapsed fall Chengdu the 10th of December 1949 some resistance continuing far south. PRC attempt take ROC-controlled island Quemoy thwarted Battle Kuningtou halting PLA advance towards Taiwan. December 1949 Chiang proclaimed Taipei temporary capital Republic China continued assert government sole legitimate authority China. Communists other amphibious operations 1950 more successful led Communist conquest Hainan Island April 1950 Wanshan Islands Guangdong coast May August 1950 Zhoushan Island Zhejiang May 1950. Most observers expected Chiang's government eventually fall imminent invasion Taiwan United States initially reluctant offering full support Chiang final stand. US President Harry S Truman announced the 5th of January 1950 United States engage dispute involving Taiwan Strait would not intervene event attack PRC. Truman seeking exploit possibility Titoist-style Sino-Soviet split announced United States Policy toward Formosa US obey Cairo Declaration designation Taiwan Chinese territory assist Nationalists. However Communist leadership aware change policy instead becoming increasingly hostile US. Situation quickly changed sudden onset Korean War June 1950. This led changing political climate US President Truman ordered United States Seventh Fleet sail Taiwan Strait part containment policy potential Communist advance. June 1949 ROC declared closure mainland China ports navy attempted intercept foreign ships. Closure point north mouth Min River Fujian mouth Liao River Liaoning. Since mainland China railroad network underdeveloped north-south trade depended heavily sea lanes. ROC naval activity caused severe hardship mainland China fishermen. During retreat Republic China Taiwan KMT troops unable retreat Taiwan left fight guerrilla war against Communists. These KMT remnants eliminated what PRC called Campaign Suppress Counterrevolutionaries Campaigns Suppress Bandits. According official statistics CCP 1954 during Campaign Suppress Counterrevolutionaries at least 2.6 million people arrested some 1.29 million people imprisoned 712,000 people executed.

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