Child labour: the story on HearLore

Child labour

In 1908, a photographer named Lewis Hine stood in a North Carolina tobacco field and captured an image that would change the course of American labor history. The photograph showed a ten-year-old girl, her face smudged with dirt, holding a heavy basket of tobacco leaves. She was not an exception; she was part of a vast, invisible army of children who powered the industrial revolution. Before the 19th century, the concept of childhood as a protected period of life was virtually non-existent. In pre-industrial societies, children were viewed as miniature adults, expected to contribute to the family's survival from the moment they were physically capable. They worked in fields, mines, and workshops, not out of malice, but out of necessity. The death of a parent often meant the immediate entry of a child into the workforce, as one-third of poor families in 19th-century Great Britain were without a breadwinner. This economic reality meant that for millions of children, work was not a choice but the only path to survival. The Industrial Revolution did not create child labor, but it transformed it into a systematic, industrialized enterprise. Cities like Manchester and Birmingham exploded in size, drawing in populations that needed to be fed and housed. The demand for cheap, compliant labor was insatiable. Children as young as four were employed in production factories and mines, often in conditions that were fatal. The job of a chimney sweep, for instance, was so hazardous that Percivall Pott's discovery of chimney sweeps' carcinoma in the 18th century marked the first recognized form of occupational cancer. These children worked long hours, often 12 hours a day, for wages that were merely 10 to 20 percent of an adult male's wage. The exploitation was so pervasive that Karl Marx, writing in The Communist Manifesto, described British industries as living by sucking blood, and children's blood too. The scale of this exploitation was staggering. By 1900, an estimated 1.7 million children under the age of fifteen were employed in American industry alone. They rolled cigarettes, worked as bobbin doffers in textile mills, and toiled in coal mines. The sheer number of children involved in these industries defied the imagination of the modern world, yet it was the engine that drove the economic growth of the era. The story of child labor is not just one of exploitation, but of a fundamental shift in how society viewed the role of children. It was a time when the innocence of childhood was sacrificed on the altar of economic progress, and the consequences of that sacrifice would echo through history for centuries.

The Factory And The Home

The narrative of child labor extends far beyond the smoke-filled factories of the Industrial Revolution. In the early 20th century, thousands of boys were employed in glass making industries, where the process involved intense heat to melt glass. These young workers were exposed to high temperatures, leading to eye trouble, lung ailments, heat exhaustion, cuts, and burns. Since workers were paid by the piece, they had to work productively for hours without a break. The furnaces had to be constantly burning, necessitating night shifts from 5:00 pm to 3:00 am. Many factory owners preferred boys under 16 years of age, believing them to be more malleable and less likely to complain. However, the factory was not the only workplace. Home-based manufacturing across the United States and Europe employed children just as extensively. Governments and reformers argued that labor in factories must be regulated, and the state had an obligation to provide welfare for the poor. Legislation that followed had the effect of moving work out of factories and into urban homes. Families and women, in particular, preferred it because it allowed them to generate income while taking care of household duties. Home-based manufacturing operations were active year-round. In France, over 58% of garment workers operated out of their homes; in Germany, the number of full-time home operations nearly doubled between 1882 and 1907. In the United States, millions of families operated out of their homes seven days a week, year round, to produce garments, shoes, artificial flowers, feathers, match boxes, toys, umbrellas, and other products. Children aged 5 to 14 worked alongside their parents in these enterprises. The work was often dangerous and unhealthy, yet it remained hidden from the public eye. In 1946, Frieda S. Miller, then Director of the United States Department of Labor, told the International Labour Organization that these home-based operations offered low wages, long hours, child labor, unhealthy and insanitary working conditions. The prevalence of child labor in rural areas was equally significant. Families deployed their children in agriculture, and in many cases, men worked from home. The rural economy relied heavily on the labor of children, who worked on farms doing physical labor, working with animals, and selling crops. The distinction between the factory and the home was often blurred, as the same children who worked in factories might also work in home-based enterprises. The impact of this dual system was profound. It meant that child labor was not confined to the industrial centers but was a pervasive feature of the global economy. The work of children was essential to the survival of millions of families, yet it came at a cost. The children who worked in these home-based operations were often denied the opportunity to attend school, leading to high rates of illiteracy. The lack of regulation and the hidden nature of the work made it difficult to address the issue. The story of child labor in the home and the factory is a testament to the resilience of the human spirit, but also to the depths of human exploitation. The children who worked in these environments were not just numbers; they were individuals with dreams, hopes, and fears. They were the invisible workforce that powered the world, yet they were often forgotten in the annals of history.

When did Lewis Hine photograph child labor in North Carolina?

Lewis Hine photographed child labor in North Carolina in 1908. The image captured a ten-year-old girl holding a heavy basket of tobacco leaves in a field.

What percentage of child laborers worked in agriculture in 2008?

Sixty percent of child laborers worked in agricultural activities in 2008. These activities included farming, dairy, fisheries, and forestry.

Which country has not ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child as of 2024?

The United States is the only nation that has not ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child as of 2024. The convention was adopted by the United Nations in 1990 and ratified by 193 countries.

How many child laborers were estimated to be in the Ivory Coast in 2001?

Malian officials believed that 15,000 children were working in the Ivory Coast in 2001. These children were often from poor families or the slums and were sold to work in other countries.

What year did the International Labour Organization adopt the Minimum Age Convention C138?

The International Labour Organization adopted the Minimum Age Convention C138 in 1973. This convention defines child labor as any work performed by children under the age of 12.

The Colonial Machine

Systematic use of child labor was commonplace in the colonies of European powers between 1650 and 1950. In Africa, colonial administrators encouraged traditional kin-ordered modes of production, hiring whole households for work, not just the adults. Millions of children worked in colonial agricultural plantations, mines, and domestic service industries. Sophisticated schemes were promulgated where children in these colonies between the ages of 5 and 14 were hired as apprentices without pay in exchange for learning a craft. A system of Pauper Apprenticeships came into practice in the 19th century, where the colonial master neither needed the native parents' nor child's approval to assign a child to labor away from parents at a distant farm owned by a different colonial master. Other schemes included 'earn-and-learn' programs where children would work and thereby learn. Britain, for example, passed a law, the Master and Servant Act 1889, followed by Tax and Pass Law, to encourage child labor in colonies, particularly in Africa. These laws offered the native men the legal ownership to some of the native land in exchange for making labor of wife and children available to the colonial government's needs, such as in farms and as picannins. Beyond laws, new taxes were imposed on colonies. One of these taxes was the Head Tax in the British and French colonial empires, imposed on everyone older than 8 years in some colonies. To pay these taxes and cover living expenses, children in colonial households had to work. In southeast Asian colonies such as Hong Kong, child labor such as the Mui tsai was rationalized as a cultural tradition and ignored by British authorities. The Dutch East India Company officials rationalized child labor as a way to 'save children from a worse fate.' Christian mission schools in regions stretching from Zambia to Nigeria also required work from children, and in exchange provided religious education, not secular education. Elsewhere, the Canadian Dominion Statutes in the form of so-called Breaches of Contract Act, stipulated jail terms for uncooperative child workers. The colonial machine was a complex system of exploitation that relied on the labor of children to sustain the economic interests of the colonial powers. The children who worked in these colonies were often subjected to harsh conditions, long hours, and little pay. The impact of this system was profound, as it perpetuated the cycle of poverty and exploitation in the colonies. The children who worked in these colonies were not just workers; they were the victims of a system that prioritized economic gain over human rights. The story of child labor in the colonies is a testament to the resilience of the human spirit, but also to the depths of human exploitation. The children who worked in these environments were not just numbers; they were individuals with dreams, hopes, and fears. They were the invisible workforce that powered the world, yet they were often forgotten in the annals of history. The legacy of this system continues to affect the lives of millions of children today, as the effects of colonialism and exploitation are still felt in many parts of the world.

The Global Struggle

Child labor remains a persistent issue in the 21st century, with estimates ranging between 250 and 304 million children involved in any economic activity. If light occasional work is excluded, the International Labour Organization estimates there were 153 million child laborers aged 5 to 14 worldwide in 2008. This is about 20 million less than the ILO estimate for child laborers in 2004. Some 60 percent of the child labor was involved in agricultural activities such as farming, dairy, fisheries, and forestry. Another 25 percent of child laborers were in service activities such as retail, hawking goods, restaurants, load and transfer of goods, storage, picking and recycling trash, polishing shoes, domestic help, and other services. The remaining 15 percent labored in assembly and manufacturing in the informal economy, home-based enterprises, factories, mines, packaging salt, operating machinery, and such operations. Two out of three child workers work alongside their parents, in unpaid family work situations. Some children work as guides for tourists, sometimes combined with bringing in business for shops and restaurants. Child labor predominantly occurs in the rural areas (70 percent) and informal urban sector (26 percent). Contrary to popular belief, most child laborers are employed by their parents rather than in manufacturing or formal economy. Children who work for pay or in-kind compensation are usually found in rural settings as opposed to urban centers. Less than 3 percent of child labor aged 5 to 14 across the world work outside their household, or away from their parents. Child labor accounts for 22 percent of the workforce in Asia, 32 percent in Africa, 17 percent in Latin America, and 1 percent in the US, Canada, Europe, and other wealthy nations. The proportion of child laborers varies greatly among countries and even regions inside those countries. Africa has the highest percentage of children aged 5 to 17 employed as child labor, and a total of over 65 million. Asia, with its larger population, has the largest number of children employed as child labor at about 114 million. Latin America and the Caribbean region have lower overall population density, but at 14 million child laborers has high incidence rates too. Accurate present-day child labor information is difficult to obtain because of disagreements between data sources as to what constitutes child labor. In some countries, government policy contributes to this difficulty. For example, the overall extent of child labor in China is unclear due to the government categorizing child labor data as 'highly secret.' China has enacted regulations to prevent child labor; still, the practice of child labor is reported to be a persistent problem within China, generally in agriculture and low-skill service sectors as well as small workshops and manufacturing enterprises. In 2014, the U.S. Department of Labor issued a List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor, where China was attributed 12 goods, the majority of which were produced by both underage children and indentured laborers. The report listed electronics, garments, toys, and coal, among other goods. The Maplecroft Child Labour Index 2012 survey reports that 76 countries pose extreme child labor complicity risks for companies operating worldwide. The ten highest risk countries in 2012, ranked in decreasing order, were: Myanmar, North Korea, Somalia, Sudan, DR Congo, Zimbabwe, Afghanistan, Burundi, Pakistan, and Ethiopia. Of the major growth economies, Maplecroft ranked Philippines 25th riskiest, India 27th, China 36th, Vietnam 37th, Indonesia 46th, and Brazil 54th, all of them rated to involve extreme risks of child labor uncertainties, to corporations seeking to invest in developing world and import products from emerging markets. The global struggle against child labor is a complex and multifaceted issue that requires a comprehensive approach. The causes of child labor are deeply rooted in poverty, lack of education, and cultural beliefs. The solutions to this problem are equally complex, requiring a combination of legal, economic, and social interventions. The story of child labor in the 21st century is a testament to the resilience of the human spirit, but also to the depths of human exploitation. The children who work in these environments are not just numbers; they are individuals with dreams, hopes, and fears. They are the invisible workforce that powers the world, yet they are often forgotten in the annals of history. The legacy of this system continues to affect the lives of millions of children today, as the effects of poverty and exploitation are still felt in many parts of the world.

The Cocoa And The Cobalt

In 1998, UNICEF reported that Ivory Coast farmers used enslaved children, many from surrounding countries. In late 2000, a BBC documentary reported the use of enslaved children in the production of cocoa, the main ingredient in chocolate, in West Africa. Other media followed by reporting widespread child slavery and child trafficking in the production of cocoa. In 2001, the US State Department estimated there were 15,000 child slaves on cocoa, cotton, and coffee farms in the Ivory Coast, and the Chocolate Manufacturers Association acknowledged that child slavery is used in the cocoa harvest. Malian migrants have long worked on cocoa farms in the Ivory Coast, but in 2000 cocoa prices had dropped to a 10-year low, and some farmers stopped paying their employees. The Malian counsel had to rescue some boys who had not been paid for five years and who were beaten if they tried to run away. Malian officials believed that 15,000 children, some as young as 11 years old, were working in the Ivory Coast in 2001. These children were often from poor families or the slums and were sold to work in other countries. Parents were told the children would find work and send money home, but once the children left home, they often worked in conditions resembling slavery. In other cases, children begging for food were lured from bus stations and sold as slaves. In 2002, the Ivory Coast had 12,000 children with no relatives nearby, which suggested they were trafficked, likely from neighboring Mali, Burkina Faso, and Togo. The cocoa industry was accused of profiting from child slavery and trafficking. The European Cocoa Association dismissed these accusations as 'false and excessive' and the industry said the reports were not representative of all areas. Later the industry acknowledged the working conditions for children were unsatisfactory and children's rights were sometimes violated and acknowledged the claims could not be ignored. In a BBC interview, the ambassador for Ivory Coast to the United Kingdom called these reports of widespread use of slave child labor by 700,000 cocoa farmers as absurd and inaccurate. In 2001, a voluntary agreement called the Harkin-Engel Protocol, was accepted by the international cocoa and chocolate industry to eliminate the worst forms of child labor, as defined by ILO's Convention 182, in West Africa. This agreement created a foundation named International Cocoa Initiative in 2002. The foundation claims it has, as of 2011, active programs in 290 cocoa growing communities in Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, reaching a total population of 689,000 people to help eliminate the worst forms of child labor in the cocoa industry. Other organizations claim progress has been made, but the protocol's 2005 deadlines have not yet been met. The story of child labor in the cocoa industry is a testament to the complexity of the global economy. The children who work in these industries are not just workers; they are the victims of a system that prioritizes economic gain over human rights. The legacy of this system continues to affect the lives of millions of children today, as the effects of poverty and exploitation are still felt in many parts of the world. The story of child labor in the cocoa industry is a reminder that the global economy is built on the backs of the most vulnerable. The children who work in these industries are not just numbers; they are individuals with dreams, hopes, and fears. They are the invisible workforce that powers the world, yet they are often forgotten in the annals of history. The legacy of this system continues to affect the lives of millions of children today, as the effects of poverty and exploitation are still felt in many parts of the world.

The Legal And The Moral

Almost every country in the world has laws relating to and aimed at preventing child labor. The International Labour Organization has helped set international law, which most countries have signed on and ratified. According to ILO minimum age convention (C138) of 1973, child labor refers to any work performed by children under the age of 12, non-light work done by children aged 12 to 14, and hazardous work done by children aged 15 to 17. Light work was defined, under this convention, as any work that does not harm a child's health and development, and that does not interfere with his or her attendance at school. This convention has been ratified by 171 countries. The United Nations adopted the Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1990, which was subsequently ratified by 193 countries. Article 32 of the convention addressed child labor, as follows: Parties recognize the right of the child to be protected from economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with his or her education, or to be harmful to the child's health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development. Under Article 1 of the 1990 Convention, a child is defined as 'every human being below the age of eighteen years unless, under the law applicable to the child, a majority is attained earlier.' Article 28 of this Convention requires States to, 'make primary education compulsory and available free to all.' As of 2024, 196 countries are party to the convention; the only nation that has not ratified the treaty is the United States. In 1999, ILO helped lead the Worst Forms Convention 182 (C182), which has so far been signed upon and domestically ratified by 151 countries including the United States. This international law prohibits worst forms of child labor, defined as all forms of slavery and slavery-like practices, such as child trafficking, debt bondage, and forced labor, including forced recruitment of children into armed conflict. The law also prohibits the use of a child for prostitution or the production of pornography, child labor in illicit activities such as drug production and trafficking; and in hazardous work. Both the Worst Forms Convention (C182) and the Minimum Age Convention (C138) are examples of international labor standards implemented through the ILO that deal with child labor. In addition to setting the international law, the United Nations initiated International Program on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) in 1992. This initiative aims to progressively eliminate child labor through strengthening national capacities to address some of the causes of child labor. Amongst the key initiative is the so-called time-bounded programme countries, where child labor is most prevalent and schooling opportunities lacking. The initiative seeks to achieve amongst other things, universal primary school availability. The IPEC has expanded to at least the following target countries: Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Democratic Republic of Congo, El Salvador, Nepal, Tanzania, Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, Philippines, Senegal, South Africa, and Turkey. Targeted child labor campaigns were initiated by the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) in order to advocate for prevention and elimination of all forms of child labor. The global Music against Child Labour Initiative was launched in 2013 in order to involve socially excluded children in structured musical activity and education in efforts to help protect them from child labor. The legal and moral struggle against child labor is a complex and multifaceted issue that requires a comprehensive approach. The causes of child labor are deeply rooted in poverty, lack of education, and cultural beliefs. The solutions to this problem are equally complex, requiring a combination of legal, economic, and social interventions. The story of child labor in the 21st century is a testament to the resilience of the human spirit, but also to the depths of human exploitation. The children who work in these environments are not just numbers; they are individuals with dreams, hopes, and fears. They are the invisible workforce that powers the world, yet they are often forgotten in the annals of history. The legacy of this system continues to affect the lives of millions of children today, as the effects of poverty and exploitation are still felt in many parts of the world.