Celts
The name Celt first appeared in written records around 400 BC, yet the people it described had already spread across much of western mainland Europe. Greek geographer Hecataeus of Miletus mentioned a group living near Massilia, modern Marseille, in southern Gaul during 517 BC. Herodotus later placed these same people at the source of the Danube river and in the far west of Europe. Scholars have debated for centuries where this culture actually began. The traditional view links proto-Celtic to the Urnfield culture of central Europe, which flourished from roughly 1200 BC to 700 BC. This theory suggests Celtic language arose there before spreading westward and southward over subsequent centuries. Archaeologist Johann Georg Ramsauer unearthed an ancient grave field at Hallstatt, Austria, in 1846 that seemed to confirm this eastern origin. He dated the burials to roughly the time when Herodotus wrote about Celts near the Danube. A second site discovered in Switzerland in 1857 provided artifacts with a distinctive style now known as La Tène. By the 1870s, scholars treated finds of this style as the definitive archaeological expression of the Celts. Newer theories challenge this eastern birthplace. Some researchers argue that Celtic languages arose earlier along the Atlantic coast, including Britain, Ireland, Armorica, and Iberia. Myles Dillon and Nora Kershaw Chadwick proposed that Celtic settlement of the British Isles might date back to the Bell Beaker culture of the Copper and Bronze Age around 2750 BC. John T. Koch and Barry Cunliffe developed this Celtic from the West theory further. They suggest proto-Celtic was the lingua franca of the Atlantic Bronze Age cultural network, later spreading inland and eastward. Another perspective comes from Patrick Sims-Williams, who argues for a Celtic from the Centre model. He suggests the language emerged between central Europe and the Atlantic, probably somewhere in Gaul centered on modern France. This view avoids the problematic idea that Celtic was spoken over a vast area for a very long time without major dialectal splits.
Greek historian Ephorus of Cyme believed the Celts came from islands off the mouth of the Rhine river. Polybius published his history of Rome about 150 BC describing the Gauls of Italy and their conflicts with Roman forces. Diodorus Siculus wrote extensively about the Celts of Gaul and Britain during the first century AD. Strabo dealt with Britain and Gaul as well as Hispania, Italy, and Galatia in his early first-century writings. Julius Caesar documented his Gallic Wars in detail between 58 and 51 BC. The Romans knew the Celts living in present-day France as Gauls. Their territory likely included the Low Countries, the Alps, and northern Italy. In 391 BC, Celts streamed through mountain passes in great strength according to Diodorus Siculus. They seized territory lying between the Apennine Mountains and the Alps. The Roman army suffered defeat at the battle of Allia when these invaders sacked Rome in 390 BC. Later, at the battle of Telamon in 225 BC, a large Celtic army was trapped between two Roman forces and crushed. The defeat of combined Samnite, Celtic, and Etruscan allies sounded the beginning of the end for Celtic domination in mainland Europe. Roman armies finally conquered the last independent Celtic kingdoms in Italy by 192 BC. Expansion eastward saw one influential tribe, the Scordisci, establish its capital at Singidunum, present-day Belgrade, Serbia, during the third century BC. Concentration of hill-forts and cemeteries showed dense population in the Tisza valley across modern Vojvodina, Serbia, Hungary, and Ukraine. Further south, Celts settled in Thrace where they ruled for over a century before being gradually Thracianized. They also established themselves in Anatolia as the Galatians. St Jerome visited Ancyra, modern Ankara, in 373 AD and likened their language to that of the Treveri of northern Gaul. These Galatians maintained their Celtic language for at least 700 years despite geographical isolation from other Celtic groups.
Celtic art generally refers to works from the La Tène period across Europe, while Early Medieval art of Britain and Ireland is called Insular art. Both styles absorbed considerable influences from non-Celtic sources but retained preference for geometrical decoration over figurative subjects. Energetic circular forms, triskeles, and spirals characterize these creations. Much surviving material exists in precious metal, though this gives an unrepresentative picture since large monumental sculpture was likely originally common in wood. The Battersea Shield dates from the third to first century BC and exemplifies La Tène style from Britain. The Waterloo Helmet in the British Museum set the standard for modern images of Celtic warriors, though it may have been ceremonial rather than military wear. Celts created developed musical instruments such as carnyces, famous war trumpets used before battle to frighten enemies. Best preserved examples found in Tintignac, Gaul, in 2004 were decorated with boar heads or snake heads. Interlace patterns often regarded as typical of Celtic art characterized the whole of the British Isles, a style referred to as Insular art. This artistic style incorporated elements of La Tène, Late Roman, and animal Style II of Germanic Migration Period art. Gospel books like the Book of Kells and Book of Lindisfarne represent peak achievement of Insular art lasting from the seventh to ninth centuries. Viking attacks sharply set back cultural life after this period. Less well known but spectacular art of richer earlier Continental Celts adopted elements of Roman, Greek, and foreign styles to decorate distinctively Celtic objects. After Roman conquests, some Celtic elements remained in popular art, especially Ancient Roman pottery where Gaul was actually the largest producer. Roman Britain took more interest in enamel than most of the Empire, developing champlevé technique important to later Medieval art across Europe.
Under Caesar Roman forces conquered Celtic Gaul while Claudius onward absorbed parts of Britain into empire. Roman local government closely mirrored pre-Roman tribal boundaries according to archaeological finds suggesting native involvement in administration. Native peoples under Roman rule became Romanized and keen to adopt Roman ways. Celtic art incorporated classical influences with surviving Gallo-Roman pieces interpreting classical subjects or keeping faith with old traditions despite Roman overlay. Roman occupation led to language shift to Vulgar Latin among continental Celts while Insular Celts retained their own tongues. Considerable cultural influence flowed from Gaul to Rome particularly regarding military matters and horsemanship since Gauls often served in Roman cavalry. Romans adopted Celtic cavalry sword called spatha and Epona the Celtic horse goddess. Trade routes spanning Eurasia linked pre-Roman Celtic societies through extensive roadways crossing bogs in Ireland and Germany believed created for wheeled transport. Territory held by Celts contained tin lead iron silver and gold enabling smiths to create weapons and jewelry for international trade especially with Romans. Myth that Celtic monetary system consisted wholly of barter proves false as system remained complex and partially understood today. Proto-money included bronze items shaped like axeheads rings or bells from early La Tène period onwards thought to have relatively high monetary value. Low-value coinages of potin minted in most Celtic areas prior to Roman conquest while higher-value coinages suitable for trade appeared in gold silver and high-quality bronze. Gold production increased significantly in Celtic areas to meet Roman demand due to high metal value placed upon it by empire.
All living Celtic languages today belong to Insular Celtic languages derived from Iron Age Britain and Ireland. These separated into Goidelic and Brittonic branches early on. By first century AD when Roman conquered Britain, Insular Celts comprised Celtic Britons Gaels or Scoti and Picts or Caledonians. Renown of insular Celts caused popular belief that clans only lived in British Isles though linguists debate whether language arrived then split or if two branches arrived separately. Older view suggested influence resulted from successive migrations or invasions from European mainland over several centuries accounting for P-Celtic versus Q-Celtic isogloss. Cunliffe and Koch propose newer theory suggesting Celtic languages reached Isles earlier with Bell Beaker culture around 2500 BC or before this date. Major archaeogenetics study uncovered migration into southern Britain during Bronze Age from 1300 to 800 BC where newcomers genetically resembled ancient individuals from Gaul. From 1000 BC their genetic marker swiftly spread through southern Britain but not northern Britain authors see as plausible vector for spread of early Celtic languages into Britain. Much less immigration occurred during Iron Age so likely Celtic reached Britain before then. During end of Roman rule in Britain in 400s AD significant Anglo-Saxon settlement of eastern and southern Britain took place alongside some Gaelic settlement of western coast. Some Britons migrated to Armorican peninsula where their culture became dominant while much northern Britain Scotland became Gaelic. By tenth century AD Insular Celtic peoples diversified into Brittonic-speaking Welsh Cornish Bretons and Cumbrians plus Gaelic-speaking Irish Scots and Manx on Isle of Man.
For at least one thousand years the ethnonym Celt remained unused entirely by any ethnic group calling themselves Celts until about 1700. Word Celtic rediscovered in classical texts applied first time to distinctive culture history traditions language of modern Celtic nations Ireland Scotland Wales Cornwall Brittany and Isle of Man. First historical account of islands came from Greek geographer Pytheas sailing around Pretannikai nesoi or Pretannic isles around 310 to 306 BC. Classical writers generally referred to Britons as Pretannoi in Greek or Britanni in Latin though Strabo distinguished between Celts and Britons. Roman historian Tacitus noted Britons resembled Gauls in customs and religion despite lack of specific terminology usage. Modern idea of Celtic cultural identity focuses on similarities among languages works of art and classical texts sometimes also material artifacts social organization homeland and mythology. Earlier theories suggested common racial origin for various Celtic peoples but recent scholarship holds they reflect common cultural and linguistic heritage more than genetic one. Today term Celtic generally refers to languages and cultures of Ireland Scotland Wales Cornwall Isle of Man and Brittany called Celtic nations. Four living languages include Irish Scottish Gaelic Welsh and Breton plus two revivals Cornish a Brittonic language and Manx a Goidelic language. Attempts continue reconstructing Cumbric a Brittonic language of northern Britain where no Celtic language survives today. Regions of mainland Europe whose residents claim Celtic heritage but lack surviving Celtic languages include western Iberia Portugal north-central Spain Galicia Asturias Cantabria Castile and León Extremadura.
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Common questions
When did the name Celt first appear in written records?
The name Celt first appeared in written records around 400 BC. Greek geographer Hecataeus of Miletus mentioned a group living near Massilia, modern Marseille, in southern Gaul during 517 BC.
Where did proto-Celtic language arise according to traditional theories?
Traditional theories link proto-Celtic to the Urnfield culture of central Europe which flourished from roughly 1200 BC to 700 BC. This theory suggests Celtic language arose there before spreading westward and southward over subsequent centuries.
What happened when Celts sacked Rome in 390 BC?
Celts streamed through mountain passes in great strength in 391 BC and seized territory lying between the Apennine Mountains and the Alps. The Roman army suffered defeat at the battle of Allia when these invaders sacked Rome in 390 BC.
Which artifacts define La Tène style Celtic art?
La Tène style is defined by artifacts such as the Battersea Shield dating from the third to first century BC and the Waterloo Helmet set in the British Museum. Energetic circular forms triskeles and spirals characterize these creations along with carnyces war trumpets found in Tintignac Gaul in 2004.
How many living Celtic languages exist today and what are they called?
Four living languages include Irish Scottish Gaelic Welsh and Breton plus two revivals Cornish a Brittonic language and Manx a Goidelic language. These belong to Insular Celtic languages derived from Iron Age Britain and Ireland which separated into Goidelic and Brittonic branches early on.