Celtiberians

• 1. Origins And Etymology

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  The Ebro river clearly divides the Celtiberian areas from non-Indo-European speaking peoples. Roman History, Book XVIII records that Cato sailed away and reached Spain to find all inhabitants as far as the Iberus had united in order to wage war against him in a body. Classical authors like Strabo explicitly mentioned these groups as being Celts. Diodorus Siculus wrote accounts of Celtiberian manners and customs based on lost texts by Posidonius. Appian of Alexandria noted intermarriage between Celts and Iberians after continuous warfare. Pliny the Elder believed the original home of the Celts in Iberia was the territory of the Celtici in the south-west. Barry Cunliffe stated this theory has the ring of guesswork about it. Scholars classify the Celtiberian language as one of the Hispano-Celtic languages spoken in pre-Roman and early Roman Iberia. The term Celtiberi appears in various ancient accounts without complete agreement among modern scholars.

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• 2. Archaeological Culture

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  Celtic presence in Iberia likely dates to as early as the 6th century BC when castros evinced new permanence with stone walls and protective ditches. Archaeologists Martín Almagro Gorbea and Alberto José Lorrio Alvarado recognize distinguishing iron tools and extended family social structure evolving from proto-Celtic archaic castro culture. Bronze Celtiberian fibula representing a warrior dates from the 3rd to 2nd century BC. Metalwork stands out in finds partly from its indestructible nature emphasizing articles of warlike uses, horse trappings and prestige weapons. The two-edged sword adopted by Romans was previously in use among Celtiberians. Latin lancea, a thrown spear, was a Hispanic word according to Varro. Excavations at strongholds like Kontebakom-Bel Botorrita and Sekaisa Segeda complement grave goods found in Celtiberian cemeteries. Aristocratic tombs of the 6th to 5th centuries BC give way to warrior tombs showing weapons disappearing from grave goods from the 3rd century BC onward. Many late Celtiberian oppida are still occupied by modern towns inhibiting archaeology.

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• 3. Political Organization

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  From the 3rd century, the clan was superseded as basic political unit by the oppidum, a fortified organized city with defined territory including castros as subsidiary settlements. These civitates could make and break alliances as surviving inscribed hospitality pacts attest. They minted coinage and formed confederacies with neighboring towns. The dominant tribe were the Arevaci who dominated neighbors from powerful strongholds at Okilis Medinaceli. Other Celtiberians included Belli and Titti in Jalón valley and Lusones to east. The cultural stronghold lay in northern area of central meseta in upper valleys of Tagus and Douro east to Iberus river. Modern provinces include Soria, Guadalajara, Zaragoza and Teruel. Old clan structures lasted in formation of armies organized along clan-structure lines causing losses of strategic and tactical control. Inscriptions discovered enabled scholars to classify language while material evidence links culture with Central European Celts yet shows large differences with Hallstatt and La Tène cultures.

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• 4. Wars With Rome

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  In 155 BC raid into Hispania Ulterior by Lusitani and defeat of two successive Roman praetors encouraged town of Segeda to rebel. Following year it refused to pay tribute or provide military contingent forming confederacy beginning construction of defensive wall. Quintus Fulvius Nobilior sent against Celtiberians in 153 BC with nearly 30,000 men arrived late and ambushed soon after with 6,000 Romans slain. Siege of Numantia followed where three elephants became frightened turning on Romans retreating in confusion. Nobilior lost over 10,000 men in campaign including suffering frostbite and death from winter cold. In 137 BC Celtiberians forced surrender of 20,000-man Roman consular army led by Gaius Hostilius Mancinus. Scipio Aemilianus took charge demoralized troops laying siege to Numantia in 134 BC. Nearby fields laid waste and what not used burned while stronghold circumvallated with ditch palisade behind ten feet high wall. Towers placed every hundred feet mounted catapults ballistae blocking river with logs embedded knives spear heads rotating strong current.

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• 5. Genetic Legacy

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  In March 2019 genetic study published in Science examined three Celtiberians buried at La Hoya Alava between 400 BC and 195 BC. They had high levels north-central European ancestry compared non-Celtic populations Iberia. One male found carrier paternal haplogroup I2a1a1a. Archaeological recovery commenced excavations Numantia published between 1914 and 1931. Celtiberian presence remains map Spain hundreds Celtic place-names. Roman army auxiliary unit Cohors I Celtiberorum known Britain attested 2nd century AD discharge diplomas Guy de la Bédoyère Eagles over Britannia page 241. Later plaques significantly inscribed Latin marking period earliest Botorrita inscribed plaque after Numantia finally taken destroyed. Sertorian War 80, 72 BC marked last formal resistance Celtiberian cities Roman domination submerging culture. The subjugated Celtiberians waged protracted struggle staging uprisings 195, 193 BC, 181, 179 BC, 153, 151 BC, 143, 133 BC.