Caspian expeditions of the Rus'

• 1. Origins And Trade Routes

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  In the early 9th century, Norsemen established a settlement called Aldeigja near the Volkhov River entry into Lake Ladoga. These traders began moving along the Dnieper trade route to reach the Byzantine Empire and the Volga trade route to access Muslim lands around the Caspian Sea. By the late 9th century, ibn Khordadbeh described Rus' merchants buying goods from Khazars in market areas on the lower Volga. They sold furs, honey, and slaves on markets of Caspian towns. Small groups even traveled as far as Baghdad on camels. European slaves interpreted for them during these long journeys. Thomas S. Noonan suggested that Rus' reached Baghdad as early as 800. This argument is supported by finding Sassanid, Arab, and Arabo-Sassanid dirham coins dated no later than 804, 805 at Peterhof near Saint-Petersburg. The first small-scale Viking raids took place in the late 9th and early 10th century. The first Caspian raid occurred sometime in the reign of Hasan ibn Zaid, ruler of Tabaristan between 864 and 884. The Rus' sailed into the Caspian Sea and unsuccessfully attacked its eastern shore at Abaskun. This port was documented in Arab sources as the most famous port of the Khazarian Sea. It sat within three days' journey from Gorgan. The southern part of the Caspian Sea became known as the Sea of Abaskun. A second raid took place in 909 or 910 with only sixteen ships participating. A third minor raid followed in 911 or 912.

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• 2. The 913 Massacre Campaign

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  A fleet of 500 ships launched the first large-scale raid in 913. These vessels reached the southern shores of the Caspian Sea through the country of the Khazars. To secure peaceful passage, the Rus' promised the Khazars half of their spoils. They sailed down the Dnieper River into the Black Sea, then into the Sea of Azov, and up the Don River past the Khazar city of Sarkel. By a portage they reached the Volga which led them into the Caspian Sea. The Rus' attacked in the Gorgan region around Abaskun and pillaged Tabaristan. An attempt to repel them near islands in the southwestern part of the Caspian Sea proved unsuccessful. They roamed and raided at will across the sea. They plundered regions of Arran, Tabaristan, Beylagan, and Shirvan. Everywhere they looted as much as possible taking women and children as slaves. News of their outrages preceded them on the homeward journey. In the Volga Delta the Rus' were attacked by Khazars and some Christians with apparent acquiescence from the Khazar ruler. Those who escaped were finished off by Burtas and Volga Bulgars according to al-Masudi.

• 3. Sacking Bardha'a And Dysentery

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  The second large-scale campaign is dated to 943 when Igor was prince of Kievan Rus'. During this expedition the Rus' rowed up the Kura River deep into the Caucasus. They defeated forces of Marzuban bin Muhammad and captured Bardha'a, capital of Arran. The Rus' allowed local people to retain their religion in exchange for recognition of overlordship. Local people broke peace by stone-throwing and other abuse directed against the invaders. The Rus' demanded inhabitants evacuate the city but received rejection. They began killing people and holding many for ransom. The slaughter briefly interrupted for negotiations which soon broke down. The Rus' stayed in Bardha'a for several months using it as base for plundering adjacent areas. They amassed substantial spoils including gems, fine raiment, boys and girls. The city was saved only by an outbreak of dysentery among the Rus'. Ibn Miskawaih wrote that the Rus' indulged excessively in fruit producing an epidemic reducing their numbers. Encouraged by the epidemic Muslims approached the city. Their chief riding on a donkey made an unsuccessful sally losing 700 warriors before retreating to the Bardha'a fortress. Exhausted by disease and siege they left by night carrying treasure and captives. Muslims exhumed weapons buried beside the dead warriors.

• 4. Destruction Of The Khazar State

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  In 965 Sviatoslav I of Kiev went to war against Khazaria. He employed Oghuz and Pecheneg mercenaries perhaps to counter superior Khazar cavalry. Sviatoslav destroyed the Khazar city of Sarkel around 965 and possibly sacked Kerch on Crimea. He subsequently destroyed the Khazar capital of Atil probably in 968 or 969. A visitor to Atil wrote soon after the campaign that no grape or raisin remained and not a leaf on a branch. Ibn Hawqal reported the sack of Semender after which the Rus' departed for Rûm and al-Andalus. Sviatoslav's campaign brought prosperity and independence of Khazaria to abrupt end. Destruction of Khazar imperial power paved way for Kievan Rus' to dominate north-south trade routes through steppe and across Black Sea. These routes formerly had been major source of revenue for Khazars. Sviatoslav's campaigns led to increased Slavic settlement in region of Saltovo-Mayaki culture. This greatly changed demographics and culture of transitional area between forest and steppe.

• 5. Later Expeditions And Ingvar

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  In 987 Maymun, emir of Derbent asked Rus' to help him against local chiefs. The Rus' arrived on 18 ships but sent only one ship to reconnoitre situation when uncertain of reception. Its crew were massacred by local population so Rus' went on to loot city of Maskat. In 989 Maymun refused demand of local preacher to turn over his Rus' mercenaries for conversion to Islam or death. He was driven from city and forced to surrender soldiers but returned in 992. In 1030 Rus' raided region of Shirvan while ruler of Ganja paid them money to suppress revolt in Beylagan. They returned home until November 1031 when they returned again but defeated near Baku and expelled. Year 1032 saw another raid into Shirvan joined by Alans and Sarir. Local Muslims defeated the Rus' in 1033. Omeljan Pritsak suggested they operated out of base near Terek estuary with principal home in Tmutarakan. In 1042 Ingvar the Far-Travelled led unsuccessful large Viking attack against Persia with fleet of 200 ships containing around 15, 20 thousand men. Legendary saga Yngvars saga víðförla describes last expedition dated to 1041 possibly connected with Georgian-Byzantine Battle of Sasireti. There are twenty-six Ingvar Runestones, twenty-three in Lake Mälaren region of Uppland Sweden referring to Swedish warriors who went east for gold but died in Saracen land.