Cannabis (drug)

• 1. Ancient Roots And Ritual Use

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  Archaeologists uncovered cannabis residue inside burners within the 2,500-year-old tombs of Jirzankal Cemetery in the Pamir Mountains. This site in Western China holds the oldest known evidence of cannabis smoking for its psychoactive effects. The charred pebbles found alongside the plant material suggest these items were used during funeral rituals by Proto-Indo-European tribes. These groups lived on the Pontic-Caspian steppe during the Chalcolithic period and spread this custom throughout Western Eurasia. Ancient Assyrians called the drug qunubu, meaning way to produce smoke, after learning about it from Iranians. Herodotus recorded that Scythians burned cannabis infructescences to induce trance states during their ceremonies. In India, the Atharva Veda estimated to have been composed around 1400 BCE mentions cannabis as a sacred substance. Hindu tradition describes the god Shiva as the Lord of bhang, linking the plant to spiritual practice.

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• 2. Chemical Structure And Brain Interaction

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  Tetrahydrocannabinol serves as the main psychoactive component within the Cannabis plant. Scientists identify at least 65 other cannabinoids including cannabidiol among the 483 known compounds found in the species. THC acts as a weak partial agonist at CB1 receptors located primarily in the brain. This activation inhibits a secondary messenger system called adenylate cyclase in a dose-dependent manner. Via CB1 receptor activation, THC indirectly increases dopamine release to produce psychotropic effects. Raw leaf is not psychoactive because the cannabinoids exist in the form of carboxylic acids before heat application. The high lipid-solubility of these compounds results in them persisting in the body for weeks or longer. Investigators suggest this persistence allows cannabinoids to accumulate in the lipid membranes of neurons. Even after a single administration of THC, detectable levels remain in the body for extended periods depending on dosage and assessment sensitivity.

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• 3. Medical Evidence And Therapeutic Claims

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  Rigorous scientific study of cannabis as medicine has been hampered by production restrictions and its classification as an illegal drug. Overall evidence suggests mixed benefits with frequent mild adverse effects and generally low-to-moderate quality data. Some research indicates cannabis can reduce nausea and vomiting during chemotherapy treatments. Other studies show it may improve appetite in people living with HIV/AIDS. There is evidence supporting use for chronic pain relief and muscle spasms associated with multiple sclerosis. Lower levels of evidence support applications for AIDS wasting syndrome, epilepsy, rheumatoid arthritis, and glaucoma. A 2015 review found that high CBD-to-THC strains showed significantly fewer positive symptoms like delusions compared to low CBD ratios. Researchers note insufficient proof exists to determine safety and efficacy for treating schizophrenia or psychosis. The medical use remains legal only in limited territories including Belgium, Australia, and many U.S. states requiring prescriptions.

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• 4. Health Risks And Adverse Consequences

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  A systematic meta-analysis showed that cannabis users double the chance of dying from heart disease. Cannabis users had a 29% higher risk of heart attack and a 20% higher risk of stroke than non-users. A 2025 systematic review involving over half a million participants reported cannabis use was associated with 51% higher odds of depression and 58% higher odds of anxiety. Individuals diagnosed with cannabis use disorder face nearly threefold increase in mortality rates over five years. These individuals are ten times more likely to die by suicide than the general population. Chronic heavy marijuana smoking associates with respiratory infections, coughing, and production of sputum. Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome causes repeated bouts of uncontrollable vomiting lasting 24 to 48 hours in some chronic users. Four cases of death have been reported as a result of this severe condition. Emergency room admissions associated with cannabis use rose significantly from 2012 to 2016 among adolescents aged 12 to 17.

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• 5. Global Legal Status And Policy Shifts

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  Uruguay became the first country to legalize recreational use of cannabis in December 2013 under President Jose Mujica. Canada legalized consumption for recreational purposes on the 17th of October 2018, becoming the second nation to do so. In the United States, recreational use is legal in 24 states, 3 territories, and the District of Columbia despite federal prohibition. The U.S. Department of Justice announced plans to reclassify cannabis from Schedule I to Schedule III controlled substance in April 2024. Germany legalized cannabis for recreational use in April 2024 following court rulings in Georgia and South Africa. Malta was the first European Union member to legalize use for recreational purposes in 2021. Lebanon recently became the first Arab country to legalize plantation of cannabis for medical use. Laws vary from province to province within Canada regarding age limits and retail structure. Some countries maintain penalties ranging from confiscation to life imprisonment or even execution for illegal possession.

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• 6. Cultural Traditions And Social Consumption

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  The earliest known reports regarding sacred status of cannabis in the Indian subcontinent come from the Atharva Veda composed around 1400 BCE. Modern spiritual use spread through disciples of the Rastafari movement who treat cannabis as a sacrament. In India, it is commonly consumed as the beverage bhang during festivals like Holi. Cannabis has been one of the most used psychoactive drugs since the late 20th century following only tobacco and alcohol. Between 1973 and 1978, eleven U.S. states decriminalized marijuana before Nevada reduced possession to a misdemeanor in 2001. Surveys indicated almost half of people in the United States had tried marijuana by 2018 with 16% using it in the past year. Daily marijuana use among US college students reached its highest level since records began in 1980 at 5.9% in 2014. A 2022 Gallup poll concluded Americans are smoking more marijuana than cigarettes for the first time.

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• 7. Economic Markets And Production Economics

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  In 2006, cannabis was estimated to have been a $36 billion market though this figure remains challenged. The UN World Drug Report stated cannabis was the world's most widely produced drug in 2010. Main producing countries include Afghanistan, Canada, China, Colombia, India, Jamaica, Lebanon, Mexico, Morocco, Pakistan, Paraguay, Spain, Thailand, Turkey, UK, and US. In Colorado, price of smokable buds dropped 40 percent between 2014 and 2019 from $200 per ounce to $120 per ounce. The average THC level in coffee shops in the Netherlands is about 18 to 19 percent. Skunk cannabis potency ranges usually from 6 to 15 percent and rarely as high as 20 percent. Advanced cultivation techniques like hydroponics and high-intensity artificial lighting respond to prohibition enforcement efforts. Cannabis oil may contain more than 60 percent THC content according to United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime data.

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