Brick
The oldest discovered bricks, originally made from shaped mud and dating before 7500 BC, were found at Tell Aswad in the upper Tigris region. These early units formed from clay-bearing earth or mud dried until strong enough for use. Mudbrick construction appeared at Çatalhöyük around 7400 BC. Structures dating to 7200 BC have been located in Jericho within the Jordan Valley. The first bricks there measured roughly 19 by 13 centimeters. Between 5000 and 4500 BC, Mesopotamia had discovered fired brick. Standard sizes followed a rule where width was twice thickness and length doubled the width. South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh constructed air-dried mudbrick structures between 7000 and 3300 BC. Ceramic or fired brick usage began as early as 3000 BC in Indus Valley cities like Kalibangan. Monumental baked brick architecture rose during the third millennium BC with examples including the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro. The fire altars of Kaalibangan and the granary of Harappa also utilized this technology. A uniformity existed throughout the Indus Valley region conforming to a 1:2:4 ratio for thickness, width, and length. By 604 BC, bricks served as materials for architectural wonders such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Glazed fired bricks entered practice there. The earliest fired bricks in Neolithic China appeared around 4400 BC at Chengtoushan. These red clay bricks fired on all sides reached temperatures above 600 degrees Celsius. They functioned as flooring for houses within the walled settlement of the Daxi culture. Fired bricks paved roads and formed building foundations by the Qujialing period in 3300 BC. Proper brick construction for walls and vaults emerged in the third century BC when baked bricks of regular shape began employment for vaulting underground tombs. Hollow brick tomb chambers gained popularity due to wood scarcity. The oldest extant brick building above ground is possibly Songyue Pagoda dated to 523 AD. Fired bricks first mass-produced during the construction of Qin Shi Huangdi's tomb. Floors of three pits contained an estimated 230,000 bricks measuring 28x14x7 cm following a 4:2:1 ratio. Use in Chinese city walls first appeared in the Eastern Han dynasty spanning 25 AD to 220 AD. Buildings in Central Asia remained unbaked until the ninth century CE when entirely constructed using fired bricks.
Early civilizations around the Mediterranean including Ancient Greeks and Romans adopted fired bricks. Standardized fired bricks heavily produced in Rome by early first century CE. Roman legions operated mobile kilns and built large structures throughout the empire stamping bricks with legion seals. The Herculaneum gate of Pompeii and baths of Caracalla stand as notable mentions. During Early Middle Ages use became popular in Northern Europe after introduction from Northwestern Italy. An independent style known as Brick Gothic flourished where indigenous rocks lacked. Examples exist in modern-day Denmark, Germany, Poland, and Kaliningrad. Malbork Castle of the Teutonic Order in Poland remains largest brick castle globally. This style evolved into Brick Renaissance as Italian Renaissance elements spread northward. Identifiable attributes included low-pitched hipped or flat roofs and symmetrical facades. Round arch entrances and windows appeared alongside columns and pilasters. A clear distinction developed at transition to Baroque architecture. In Lübeck Brick Renaissance recognized in buildings equipped with terracotta reliefs by artist Statius von Düren. He also worked at Schwerin and Wismar. Long-distance bulk transport remained prohibitively expensive until modern infrastructure development. Canal construction, road building, and railway expansion enabled movement of heavy materials.
Production increased massively with onset of Industrial Revolution and rise in factory building in England. Bricks preferred for speed and economy even where stone readily available. Bright red brick chosen in London to make buildings visible in heavy fog. It helped prevent traffic accidents during that era. Transition from hand-moulding to mechanized mass-production slowly took place first half nineteenth century. Richard A. Ver Valen of Haverstraw New York patented first brick-making machine in 1852. Bradley & Craven Ltd Stiff-Plastic Brickmaking Machine received patent in 1853. Bradley & Craven became dominant manufacturer of machinery. Henry Clayton employed at Atlas Works Middlesex England patented a machine capable producing up to 25,000 bricks daily minimal supervision. His apparatus achieved widespread attention after adoption by South Eastern Railway Company near Folkestone. Hudson River region New York State became world largest manufacturing region end 19th century. One hundred thirty brickyards lined shores from Mechanicsville to Haverstraw employing 8,000 people. Peak production reached about 1 billion bricks annually sent to New York City. Demand for high office building construction turn 20th century led greater use cast iron steel concrete. Monadnock Building built 1896 Chicago required exceptionally thick walls maintain structural integrity its 17 storeys. Pioneering work 1950s Swiss Federal Institute Technology and Building Research Establishment Watford UK made tall structures viable up to 18 storeys. Use largely remained restricted small medium buildings as steel concrete superior materials high-rise construction.
Four basic types exist: unfired fired chemically set compressed earth blocks. Each manufactured differently various purposes. Unfired mudbricks made mixture silt clay sand gravel stone combined tempers binding agents chopped straw grasses tree bark dung. Clay content ranges 30% to 70%. Ingredients harvested added together broken hoes adzes stirred water form homogenous blend. Tempers binding agents ratio roughly one part straw five parts earth reduce weight reinforce brick help shrinkage. Additional clay reduces need straw prevent insects deteriorating organic material weakening structure. Thoroughly mixed hand treading left ferment day. Mix kneaded water molded rectangular prisms desired size. Bricks lined left dry sun three days both sides. Six days bricks continue drying until required use. Average eight nine days span initial stages application structures. Spring months allow drying over summer autumn use. Arid environments employ air drying. Fired bricks baked kiln makes durable. Modern fired clay formed soft mud dry press extruded processes. Extruded or soft mud most common economical depending country. Clay shale raw ingredients recipe baked brick product thousands years decomposition erosion rocks pegmatite granite. Material highly chemically stable inert. Aluminosilicate pure clay free silica quartz decomposed rock present within clays shales. Proposed optimal mix includes silica 50% to 60% by weight alumina 20% to 30% lime 2 to 5% iron oxide less than 7% magnesia less than 1%. Shaping methods include moulded dry-pressed extruded. Moulded start raw clay preferably mix 25, 30% sand reduce shrinkage. Clay ground mixed water desired consistency pressed steel moulds hydraulic press. Shaped clay fired achieve strength. Dry-press similar soft-mud moulded starts thicker clay mix forms accurate sharper-edged bricks. Greater force pressing longer firing time make method expensive. Extruded clay mixed 10, 15% water stiff extrusion 20, 25% water soft extrusion pugmill. Mixture forced die create long cable material desired width depth mass cut bricks desired length wall wires. Structural bricks made this method produces hard dense suitable dies produce perforations. Introduction holes reduces volume clay needed hence cost. Hollow lighter easier handle different thermal properties solid bricks. Cut bricks hardened drying 20 to 40 hours before fired. Heat often waste heat kiln.
Bricks must small light picked bricklayer one hand leaving other free trowel. Effective limit width set distance span thumb fingers normally about 10 centimeters. Length usually twice width plus mortar joint width about 20 centimeters slightly more. Wall built alternating courses stretchers headers tie wall together over width. English cross bond variation successive layers stretchers displaced horizontally half brick length true English perpendicular lines stretcher courses line each other. Bigger brick makes thicker insulating wall historically necessary colder climates. Russian brick size slightly larger than others noted illustration Green Gate Gdansk built 1571 imported Dutch brick too small cold climate notorious chilly drafty residence. Modern walls incorporate specialized insulation materials now issue no longer. Correct brick selected choice colour surface texture density weight absorption pore structure thermal characteristics fire resistance. Standard Metric Imperial Ratio variations exist globally. England length width common brick fairly constant from 1625 regulated statute 9 x 4.5 x 3 inches depth varied earlier times about 3 inches more recently. United Kingdom usual modern brick size from 1965 forms unit size with nominal mortar joint ratio 6:3:2. United States modern standard bricks specified various uses modular actual dimensions 194 × 92 × 57 mm. With standard inch mortar joint gives nominal dimensions 8 x 4 x 2.25 inches eases calculation number bricks given wall. 2:1 ratio means corners turn 1/2 running bond formed without cutting brick fill gap cut brick height matches three modular running courses one standard CMU course. Some creators innovative sizes shapes plastering mechanical properties important visual ones. Slightly larger requires less mortar handling fewer bricks reduces cost ribbed exterior aids plastering complex interior cavities allow improved insulation maintaining strength. Blocks much greater range sizes. Standard coordinating lengths heights include 400×200 450×150 450×200 450×225 450×300 600×150 600×200 600×225 depths work size include 60 75 90 100 115 140 150 190 200 225 250. Usable across range lighter clay bricks. Density solid clay bricks around 2000 kg/m3 reduced frogging hollow bricks aerated autoclaved concrete even solid range 450, 850 kg/m3. Compressive strength United States ranges about varying according use put England clay bricks strengths up to 100 MPa common house likely show range 20, 40 MPa.
Bricks versatile building material able participate wide variety applications including structural walls exterior interior bearing non-bearing sound proof partitions fireproofing structural-steel members foundations stucco chimneys fireplaces porches terraces outdoor steps walks paved floors swimming pools. United States used buildings pavement examples colonial era notable structures country. Paving roads sidewalks especially late 19th early 20th century introduction asphalt concrete reduced use still sometimes installed traffic calming decorative surface pedestrian precincts. Early 1900s most streets city Grand Rapids Michigan paved bricks today only about 20 blocks remaining totalling less than 0.5 percent all streets city limits. Municipalities across United States began replacing brick streets inexpensive asphalt concrete mid-20th century. Northwest Europe centuries construction almost houses built entirely bricks. Many now built mixture concrete blocks other materials skinned layer outside aesthetic appeal. Metallurgy glass industries often lining furnaces refractory bricks silica magnesia chamotte neutral chromomagnesite good thermal shock resistance refractoriness under load high melting point satisfactory porosity large industry UK Japan US Belgium Netherlands. Engineering strength low water porosity acid flue gas resistance needed red brick university founded late 19th early 20th century term refers institutions collectively distinguish older Oxbridge institutions uses bricks stone. Colombian architect Rogelio Salmona noted extensive use red bricks natural shapes spirals radial geometry curves designs. Starting 20th century use declined some areas earthquake concerns. San Francisco earthquake 1906 Long Beach earthquake 1933 revealed weaknesses unreinforced masonry earthquake-prone areas. Mortar cracks crumbles during seismic events bricks no longer held together. Brick masonry steel reinforcement helps hold masonry earthquakes used replace unreinforced many buildings. Retrofitting older unreinforced masonry structures mandated many jurisdictions similar steel corrosion reinforced concrete rebar rusting compromise structural integrity expected lifetime trade-off earthquake safety longevity certain extent. United States Access Board does not specify which materials sidewalk must made ADA compliant states sidewalks surface variances greater than half inch Federal Highway Administration recommends against use cobblestones accessibility guide sidewalks crosswalks Brick Industry Association maintains standards making accessible disabled people proper regular maintenance necessary keep accessible. Some US jurisdictions like San Francisco steps remove brick sidewalks Market Street improve accessibility.
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Common questions
When and where were the oldest discovered bricks found?
The oldest discovered bricks date before 7500 BC and were found at Tell Aswad in the upper Tigris region. These early units formed from clay-bearing earth or mud dried until strong enough for use.
What are the standard dimensions of a modern United States brick?
United States modern standard bricks have actual dimensions of 194 by 92 by 57 mm. With a standard inch mortar joint these give nominal dimensions of 8 by 4 by 2.25 inches.
Which civilization first used fired bricks in Neolithic China?
Fired bricks appeared around 4400 BC at Chengtoushan in Neolithic China. These red clay bricks fired on all sides reached temperatures above 600 degrees Celsius and functioned as flooring within the walled settlement of the Daxi culture.
Who patented the first brick-making machine in 1852?
Richard A. Ver Valen of Haverstraw New York patented the first brick-making machine in 1852. Bradley & Craven Ltd Stiff-Plastic Brickmaking Machine received patent in 1853 and became the dominant manufacturer of machinery.
When did the oldest extant brick building above ground date to?
The oldest extant brick building above ground is possibly Songyue Pagoda dated to 523 AD. Fired bricks were first mass-produced during the construction of Qin Shi Huangdi's tomb where floors contained an estimated 230,000 bricks measuring 28x14x7 cm.