Bread
Evidence from 30,000 years ago in Europe and Australia revealed starch residue on rocks used for pounding plants. Archaeologists found that during this time, starch extract from the roots of plants like cattails and ferns was spread on a flat rock. People placed the rock over a fire to cook it into a primitive form of flatbread. The oldest evidence of bread-making has been found in a 14,500-year-old Natufian site in Jordan's northeastern desert. This discovery suggests humans were making bread long before agriculture began around 10,000 BC. With the dawn of the Neolithic age, grains became the mainstay of making bread. Yeast spores are ubiquitous, including on the surface of cereal grains. Any dough left to rest leavens naturally without human intervention. An early leavened bread was baked as early as 6000 BC in southern Mesopotamia. This region is known as the cradle of the Sumerian civilization. They may have passed on the knowledge to the Egyptians around 3000 BC. The Egyptians refined the process and started adding yeast to the flour. The Sumerians were already using ash to supplement the dough as it was baked.
Airborne yeasts could be harnessed by leaving uncooked dough exposed to air for some time before cooking. Pliny the Elder reported that the Gauls and Iberians used the foam skimmed from beer called barm. They produced a lighter kind of bread than other peoples such as barm cake. Parts of the ancient world that drank wine instead of beer used a paste composed of grape juice and flour. This mixture was allowed to begin fermenting or wheat bran steeped in wine served as a source for yeast. The most common source of leavening was to retain a piece of dough from the previous day. This method created a form of sourdough starter as Pliny also reported. The Chorleywood bread process was developed in 1961. It uses the intense mechanical working of dough to dramatically reduce the fermentation period. The process allows for the use of grain with a lower protein content. It is now widely used around the world in large factories. Bread can be produced very quickly and at low costs to the manufacturer and the consumer. However, there has been some criticism of the effect on nutritional value. Commercial bakers often leaven their dough with commercially produced baker's yeast. Baker's yeast produces uniform, quick, and reliable results because it is obtained from a pure culture. Many artisan bakers produce their own yeast with a growth culture. If kept in the right conditions, it provides leavening for many years.
Bread plays an important role in many cultures because of its historical role and contemporary importance. In Christianity, bread serves as one of the elements alongside wine of the Eucharist. Other religions including Paganism also feature bread in rituals. A bread-winner is a household's main economic contributor and has little to do with actual bread-provision. The phrase putting bread on the table reflects this metaphorical usage. The Roman poet Juvenal satirized superficial politicians and the public as caring only for panem et circenses. In Russia in 1917, the Bolsheviks promised peace, land, and bread. The term breadbasket denotes an agriculturally productive region. In parts of Northern, Central, Southern and Eastern Europe bread and salt is offered as a welcome to guests. In India, life's basic necessities are often referred to as roti, kapra aur makan. Words for bread including dough and bread itself are used in English-speaking countries as synonyms for money. A remarkable or revolutionary innovation may be called the best thing since sliced bread. The expression to break bread with someone means to share a meal with someone. The English word lord comes from the Anglo-Saxon hlāfweard meaning bread keeper. Bread is sometimes referred to as the staff of life although this term can refer to other staple foods.
Glutenin and gliadin are functional proteins found in wheat bread that contribute to the structure of bread. Glutenin forms interconnected gluten networks within bread through interchain disulfide bonds. Gliadin binds weakly to the gluten network established by glutenin via intrachain disulfide bonds. Structurally, bread can be defined as an elastic-plastic foam similar to styrofoam. Acrylamide has been found in recent years to occur in bread when heated higher than 120 degrees Celsius. This substance is neurotoxic and has adverse effects on male reproduction and developmental toxicity. It is also carcinogenic. A study has found that more than 99 percent of the acrylamide in bread is found in the crust. A study by the University of Hohenheim found that industrially produced bread typically has a high proportion of FODMAP carbohydrates due to a short rising time. Industrial breads rise for a much shorter time usually only one hour. While traditional bread making the dough rises for several hours, industrial breads rise for a much shorter time. The high proportion of FODMAP carbohydrates in such bread then causes flatulence. This is particularly problematic in intestinal diseases such as irritable bowel syndrome. Bread is a good source of carbohydrates and micronutrients such as magnesium iron selenium and B vitamins. Whole grain bread is a good source of dietary fiber and all breads are a common source of protein.
The Chorleywood bread process was developed in 1961 and uses intense mechanical working of dough. It dramatically reduces the fermentation period and the time taken to produce a loaf. The process allows for the use of grain with a lower protein content. It is now widely used around the world in large factories. Calcium propanoate is commonly added by commercial bakeries to retard the growth of molds. Bread improvers and dough conditioners are often used in producing commercial breads. These substances reduce the time needed for rising and improve texture and volume. They also give antistaling effects. The substances may be oxidising agents to strengthen the dough or reducing agents to develop gluten. Emulsifiers strengthen the dough or provide other properties such as making slicing easier. Enzymes increase gas production. A fat content of approximately 3 percent by weight produces the greatest leavening action. In addition to their effects on leavening, fats serve to tenderize breads and preserve freshness. Salt is very often added to enhance flavor and restrict yeast activity. It affects the crumb and the overall texture by stabilizing and strengthening the gluten. Some artisan bakers forego early addition of salt to the dough whether wholemeal or refined. They wait until after a 20-minute rest to allow the dough to autolyse.
Sourdough is a type of bread produced by a long fermentation of dough using naturally occurring yeasts and lactobacilli. It usually has a mildly sour taste because of the lactic acid produced during anaerobic fermentation. Longer fermented sourdoughs can also contain acetic acid which is the main non-water component of vinegar. Sourdough breads are made with a sourdough starter that cultivates yeast and lactobacilli in a mixture of flour and water. The starter does not need any added yeast since it uses microorganisms already present on flour. A starter may be maintained indefinitely by regular additions of flour and water. Some bakers have starters many generations old which are said to have a special taste or texture. At one time all yeast-leavened breads were sourdoughs. Recently there has been a revival of sourdough bread in artisan bakeries. Traditionally peasant families throughout Europe baked on a fixed schedule perhaps once a week. The starter was saved from the previous week's dough. The starter was mixed with the new ingredients and the dough was left to rise. Then a piece of it was saved to be the starter for next week's bread. Many bakers see the starter method as a compromise between the reliable results of baker's yeast and the flavor and complexity of a longer fermentation.
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Common questions
When was the oldest evidence of bread-making found in Jordan?
The oldest evidence of bread-making has been found in a 14,500-year-old Natufian site in Jordan's northeastern desert. This discovery suggests humans were making bread long before agriculture began around 10,000 BC.
What is the Chorleywood bread process and when was it developed?
The Chorleywood bread process was developed in 1961 and uses intense mechanical working of dough to dramatically reduce the fermentation period. It allows for the use of grain with lower protein content and is now widely used around the world in large factories.
How does sourdough bread differ from other types of bread regarding leavening agents?
Sourdough is a type of bread produced by a long fermentation of dough using naturally occurring yeasts and lactobacilli without any added yeast. The starter cultivates these microorganisms in a mixture of flour and water and can be maintained indefinitely by regular additions of flour and water.
Why might industrial bread cause digestive issues according to studies?
A study by the University of Hohenheim found that industrially produced bread typically has a high proportion of FODMAP carbohydrates due to a short rising time usually only one hour. The high proportion of FODMAP carbohydrates in such bread then causes flatulence which is particularly problematic in intestinal diseases such as irritable bowel syndrome.
What are the health risks associated with acrylamide in bread crusts?
Acrylamide has been found to occur in bread when heated higher than 120 degrees Celsius and is neurotoxic with adverse effects on male reproduction and developmental toxicity. A study has found that more than 99 percent of the acrylamide in bread is found in the crust and it is also carcinogenic.