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— CH. 1 · ORIGINS AND EVOLUTION —

Big Tech

~6 min read · Ch. 1 of 6
6 sections

  • In 2013, economist Jim Cramer coined the acronym FANG to describe Facebook, Amazon, Netflix, and Google. He called these companies "totally dominant in their markets" and claimed they were poised to take a bite out of declining sectors. The term Big Tech began appearing around that same year as economists speculated that deregulation would lead to concentrated market power. Before this moment, IBM, Microsoft, and Apple dominated the worldwide information technology industry during the late 20th century. The dot-com bubble wiped out most Nasdaq Composite stock market index stocks before surviving startups expanded their market share. Following Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections, access to large amounts of data allowed tech companies to influence users. This event made the concept of Big Tech popular among critics who compared it to Big Oil following the 1970s energy crisis. Congress attempted to regulate those industries just as it later targeted Big Tobacco. By 2024, the largest six tech companies in the United States included Alphabet, Amazon, Apple, Meta, Microsoft, and Nvidia. These entities also became the largest companies globally by market capitalization.

  • Alphabet reached a market capitalization of $1 trillion for the first time in January 2020. It became the fourth U.S. company to achieve this milestone after Google operated several world-famous internet services. As of 2024, Google provided online advertising through Google Ads and web search via Google Search. YouTube served video sharing while Gmail handled email and Chrome acted as a web browser. Android powered mobile operating systems and Waze offered web mapping alongside Google Maps. Cloud storage came through Google Drive while its cloud computing division ranked third globally behind Amazon Web Services and Microsoft Azure. Advertising accounted for 82% of Google's revenue in 2021. Amazon held 38% of e-commerce market share in the United States as of 2024. Its Amazon Web Services division generated the majority of operating profit since 2014. Apple designed electronics including the iPhone, Mac computers, and Apple Watch. iOS held 27% global market share while Android captured 72%. Meta Platforms owned Facebook, Instagram, Threads, and WhatsApp. Advertising made up 96.69% of total revenue in 2024. Microsoft developed Windows, Office suites, and Teams for business communication. Nvidia became the dominant supplier of hardware used by artificial intelligence systems. By late 2024, Nvidia surpassed both Amazon and Alphabet in market value.

  • Chinese tech companies Baidu, Alibaba, Tencent, and Xiaomi collectively form BATX groups often seen as competitors to American giants. South Korean conglomerate Samsung and Taiwanese chip manufacturer TSMC also appear within Big Tech discussions. In 2023, the Magnificent Seven accounted for approximately two thirds of S&P 500 gains. Over one year, these seven delivered a groundbreaking 107% return on investment credited to AI boom and expected interest rate cuts. Deutsche Bank stated that combined valuation reached $13 trillion by February 2024. This figure exceeded stock market valuations in every country except Japan, China, and the United States. Morgan Stanley noted that the group accounted for 31% of S&P 500 holdings by mid-2024. Some analysts warned extreme concentration could trigger downturns similar to the dot-com crash or 1929 collapse. On the 5th of August 2024, the Magnificent Seven briefly lost $1 trillion before quickly recovering. Nikos Smyrnaios argued globalization allowed Big Tech companies to minimize tax burdens and pay foreign workers lower wages. Without regulation, Google, Apple, and Facebook earned over 20% profit margins in 2014. The complexity of IT made competition law ineffective resulting in industry self-regulation.

  • Antitrust investigations began in the late 1990s leading to the first major case against Microsoft in 2001. The U.S. government accused Microsoft of illegally maintaining monopoly position in PC markets. District court ruled actions constituted monopolization under Sherman Antitrust Act while appeals court affirmed most judgments. Department of Justice announced the 6th of September 2001 it would not seek breakup but instead seek lesser penalties if Microsoft agreed to share APIs with third parties. Judge Kollar-Kotelly accepted proposed settlement the 1st of November 2002 and appeals court approved the 30th of June 2004. In 2017, Elizabeth Warren criticized Big Tech for offering free services to remain popular. House Judiciary Subcommittee investigated Big Tech in June 2020 publishing report January 2021 concluding Amazon, Apple, Google, and Meta operated anticompetitively. President Joe Biden signed Executive Order 14036 the 9th of July 2021 establishing policy to scrutinize mergers involving Big Tech companies. District Court Judge Amit Mehta ruled August 2024 that Google held monopoly in online search violating Section 2 of Sherman Act. Eastern Virginia Judge Leonie Brinkema ruled April 2025 that Google held monopoly in advertising technology violating Sections 1 and 2. European Union charged Apple the 24th of June 2024 with breaching Digital Markets Act potentially resulting in significant fine. Final decision expected March 2025.

  • Following Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections, Facebook faced criticism for failing to curb disinformation. The Facebook-Cambridge Analytica data scandal targeted users for political propaganda based on online activity monitored without consent. Senate Intelligence Committee report 2019 criticized Facebook and Twitter for failing to stop misinformation spread. During COVID-19 pandemic, Big Tech allowed health-related false advertising despite representatives Frank Pallone, Mike Doyle, and Jan Schakowsky calling industry self-regulation failed. Human Rights Watch criticized primarily Facebook for allowing misinformation to spread in developing countries. In September 2024 Federal Trade Commission released report finding user data practices made people vulnerable to identity theft stalking unlawful discrimination emotional distress mental health issues social stigma and reputational harm. Associated Press reported September 2025 leaked documents showed U.S. companies developed technology enabling mass surveillance internet censorship human rights abuses in China including against Uyghur and Tibetan populations through partnerships with PRC law enforcement military and defense contractors. Companies identified included Microsoft Nvidia Amazon Web Services IBM Thermo Fisher Scientific Dell Cisco Seagate Hewlett Packard Enterprise Oracle Intel Motorola Western Digital Esri Broadcom and VMware. Progressives alleged runaway profit-taking concentration of wealth while conservatives claimed liberal bias.

  • Alt-tech represents collection of social networking services popular among alt-right far-right groups espousing extremism or fringe theories due to looser content moderation. Fediverse allows federated social networking services to communicate even if controlled independently sending status updates multimedia files across network. Web3 incorporates concepts like decentralization blockchain technologies token-based economics contrasting with Web 2.0 where user-generated content controlled by small group called Big Tech. Dark web exists on overlay networks requiring specific software configurations authorization accessing private computer networks anonymously without divulging location. Little Tech refers semi-humorously to startup culture attracting attention for technical innovation encouraging digital wellbeing. Andreessen Horowitz argues Little Tech threatened by anticompetitive policies emphasizing importance investing in startups supporting technological progress. Organizations like American Innovators Network support agenda offering workshops consultations helping teenagers understand technology developing custom solutions local governments enhancing public services promoting digital transformation. Some critics argue Little Tech agenda wish list venture capitalists seeking preferential treatment risky investments rather than accelerating innovation. Despite criticisms Little Tech companies demonstrated ability solving problems too specific Big Tech interested in.

Common questions

What companies are included in Big Tech as of 2024?

The largest six tech companies in the United States by 2024 were Alphabet, Amazon, Apple, Meta, Microsoft, and Nvidia. These entities also became the largest companies globally by market capitalization.

When did Jim Cramer coin the acronym FANG for big technology companies?

Economist Jim Cramer coined the acronym FANG to describe Facebook, Amazon, Netflix, and Google in 2013. He called these companies totally dominant in their markets and claimed they were poised to take a bite out of declining sectors.

Why did antitrust investigations begin against Microsoft in the late 1990s?

Antitrust investigations began in the late 1990s leading to the first major case against Microsoft in 2001 because the U.S. government accused it of illegally maintaining monopoly position in PC markets. District court ruled actions constituted monopolization under Sherman Antitrust Act while appeals court affirmed most judgments.

How much profit margin did Google, Apple, and Facebook earn without regulation in 2014?

Without regulation, Google, Apple, and Facebook earned over 20% profit margins in 2014. The complexity of IT made competition law ineffective resulting in industry self-regulation.

What happened on the 5th of August 2024 regarding the Magnificent Seven stock market value?

On the 5th of August 2024, the Magnificent Seven briefly lost $1 trillion before quickly recovering. Deutsche Bank stated that combined valuation reached $13 trillion by February 2024 which exceeded stock market valuations in every country except Japan, China, and the United States.

See all questions about Big Tech →

All sources

243 references cited across the entry

  1. 1inlineAttributed to multiple references:
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  5. 5journalDatafeudalism: The Domination of Modern Societies by Big Tech CompaniesCarlos Saura García — 2024
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  8. 8newsWhere Netflix Goes, Big Tech May FollowNoel Randewich — Reuters — January 21, 2018
  9. 9webOpinion: Alphabet, Meta, Amazon and Microsoft Share This One Thing—And It'll Keep the Stocks Fired UpDaniel Newman — August 11, 2025
  10. 10newsNvidia's Big Tech Rivals Put Their Own A.I. Chips on the TableMetz et al. — January 29, 2024
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  12. 12magazineTesla Kicks Off Earnings Season for Big Tech's 'Magnificent 7' Amid Huge Market Cap Drops Spurred by 'Massive Uncertainty and Chaos' from White HouseMichael Liedtke — April 21, 2025
  13. 13webIs Twitter angling to become Big Tech?Alexandra S. Levine — February 26, 2021
  14. 14newsFrom Facebook to Twitter, Big Tech sees social commerce driving sales growthSheila Dang et al. — Reuters — July 29, 2021
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  16. 16webHow to get into big tech companies (FAANG+) in 7 steps
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  18. 18newsEchoes of dotcom bubble haunt AI-driven US stock marketLewis Krauskopf — July 2, 2024
  19. 19newsAlphabet Earnings Preview: Tech Titans Battle for AI and Cloud SupremacyEthan Feller — July 18, 2023
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  22. 22webMedia's failed attempt to take on the Facebook-Google 'duopolySara Fischer — September 29, 2020
  23. 23webGoogle is slashing the amount it keeps from sales on its cloud marketplace as pressure mounts on app storesJordan Novet — September 26, 2021
  24. 24webGoogle's biggest bet is AI for search, investment chief saysJeffrey Dastin — December 10, 2024
  25. 25journalHello quantum world! Google publishes landmark quantum supremacy claimElizabeth Gibney — October 23, 2019
  26. 26webWaymo starts offering autonomous rides in San FranciscoSean O'Kane — August 24, 2021
  27. 27newsAlphabet, Google's parent company, hits trillion-dollar market cap for first timeJennifer Elias — CNBC — January 16, 2020
  28. 28newsAlphabet Becomes Fourth U.S. Company to Reach $1 Trillion Market ValueAmrith Ramkumar — January 16, 2020
  29. 29webLatest US Ecommerce Statistics (2025) StatsUp
  30. 30webIn the 15 years since its launch, Amazon Web Services transformed how companies do businessMarch 13, 2021
  31. 31webHow Amazon's cloud business generates billions in profitJordan Novet — September 5, 2021
  32. 32newsAmazon stock hits a new all-time high as it sees unprecedented demandLauren Feiner — CNBC — April 14, 2020
  33. 33newsAmazon sell-off pushes market cap below $1 trillion for first time since April 2020Ashley Capoot — CNBC — November 1, 2022
  34. 34newsAmazon reaches $2 trillion market cap for the first timeAnnie Palmer — CNBC — June 26, 2024
  35. 35citationHow 5 Tech Giants Have Become More Like Governments Than CompaniesOctober 26, 2017
  36. 36newsApple hangs onto its historic $1 trillion market capSara Salinas — CNBC — August 2, 2018
  37. 37newsApple becomes first U.S. company to reach $3 trillion market capKif Leswing — CNBC — January 3, 2022
  38. 38newsApple's market cap closes above $3 trillion for the first timeHayden Field — CNBC — June 30, 2023
  39. 39webMeta Reports Fourth Quarter and Full Year 2024 ResultsJanuary 29, 2025
  40. 40newsFacebook is changing its name to Meta as it focuses on the virtual worldElizabeth Dwoskin — October 28, 2021
  41. 41webMicrosoft Teams Now Has Roughly 250 Million Monthly Active Users Globally
  42. 42webCloud Market Share 2019: AWS vs Azure vs Google – Who's Winning?Cristina Vargas — October 25, 2019
  43. 43newsMicrosoft hits $1 trillion market cap for the first time as stock jumps on earnings beatAri Levy — CNBC — April 25, 2019
  44. 44newsMicrosoft closes above $2 trillion market cap for the first timeJordan Novet — CNBC — June 24, 2021
  45. 45newsTesla falls on Fortune 500 list of biggest companies; Dell and Oracle riseMadison Iszler — July 31, 2025
  46. 46webWhy NVIDIA Has Become a Leader in the AI MarketRob Enderle — January 18, 2022
  47. 47webHow Nvidia dominated AI — and plans to keep it that way as generative AI explodesSharon Goldman — February 23, 2023
  48. 48newsNvidia crosses into $1 trillion market cap before giving back gainsRohan Goswami — CNBC — May 30, 2023
  49. 49webIs Tesla A Tech Company: The Debate ExplainedNathan Alexander Yeung — 2025-01-22
  50. 50webBig Tech stocks weathered the Q1 selloff. Others weren't so luckyJacob Carpenter — March 31, 2022
  51. 51newsTesla is like an 'iPhone on wheels.' And consumers are locked into its ecosystem.Faiz Siddiqui — May 14, 2021
  52. 52webEveryone who thinks Tesla is a tech company is completely wrong — Tesla should aspire to be HondaMatthew DeBord — Feb 9, 2019
  53. 53webWhy Tesla Isn't a Very Good Tech CompanyAl Root — Feb 28, 2022
  54. 54newsTesla's AI push could pave the way for the next chapter of its stock storyFaizan Farooque — November 29, 2024
  55. 55newsTesla's stock defied gravity for years. Is Elon Musk's EV party over?
  56. 56newsTesla's Valuation Shows What Wall Street Thinks AI Is Worth
  57. 57newsTesla hits $1 trillion market cap for the first time after Hertz says it will buy 100,000 electric vehiclesSamantha Subin — CNBC — October 25, 2021
  58. 58newsAs Tesla joins the elite $1 trillion stock club, two traders see another potential milestone aheadKeris Lahiff — CNBC — October 25, 2021
  59. 59newsTesla Stock Fell 65% in 2022, Its Biggest-Ever Annual DeclineMeghan Bobrowsky — News Corp — December 30, 2022
  60. 60newsElon Musk sells another huge chunk of Tesla sharesLora Kolodny — CNBC — December 14, 2022
  61. 61newsTesla's stock is headed for its worst month, quarter and year on recordRohan Goswami — CNBC — December 27, 2022
  62. 62webTesla sales plunge: Biggest decline in historyChris Isidore — April 2, 2025
  63. 63newsTesla hits $1 trillion market cap as stock rallies after Trump winAnnie Palmer — CNBC — November 8, 2024
  64. 64newsNicknames bloom in China's tech renaissanceTom Westbrook et al. — February 19, 2025
  65. 65magazineWhy China crushed its tech giants
  66. 66webChina's DJI rebuffs Russian post calling its drones 'symbol of modern warfare'August 15, 2022
  67. 67webForget the 'Magnificent Seven.' What About the Incredible Eight?Keithen Drury — July 6, 2024
  68. 68webWhat are the Four Big Tech Companies in the US?October 24, 2019
  69. 69webNYSE FANG+ Index
  70. 70webFAANG: Beyond the Core: Exploring FAANG: Stocks and Their Impact
  71. 71web'Bye-bye FAANG, hello MAMAA'—Cramer reveals a new acronym after Facebook's name changeKevin Stankiewicz — October 29, 2021
  72. 72webCramer: Does Your Portfolio Have FANGs?Lee Brodie — February 5, 2013
  73. 73webFANG Stocks Are Getting Their Own IndexKinsey Grant — The Street — September 26, 2017
  74. 74newsWhat Are the FANG Stocks?Matthew Frankel — September 29, 2017
  75. 75webCramer: Disney, Apple and the fate of FANGLizzy Gurdus — May 1, 2017
  76. 76webFAANG is Dead. Long Live MANAMANABill Mann — November 5, 2021
  77. 77magazineThe Big Nine G-MAFIA BATBruce Sterling — March 15, 2019
  78. 78newsOpinion Here Come the 4 Horsemen of the TechopolypseKara Swisher — July 1, 2020
  79. 79bookThe Four: The Hidden DNA of Amazon, Apple, Facebook, and GoogleScott Galloway — Random House Large Print — 2017
  80. 80journalCan Big Tech Be Disrupted?Alison Beard — January 2022
  81. 81webBig tech threats: Making sense of the backlash against online platformsClara Hendrickson et al. — Brookings Institution — May 28, 2019
  82. 82bookThe Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of PowerShoshana Zuboff — Profile Books — 2019
  83. 83webEric Schmidt's 'Gang Of Four' Doesn't Have Room for Microsoft
  84. 84webEric Schmidt is stepping down as the executive chairman of AlphabetCNBC — December 21, 2017
  85. 85newsMicrosoft passes Apple to become the world's most valuable companySamantha Subin — CNBC — October 29, 2021
  86. 86webMove over Faangs, make way for MagaRichard Waters — July 27, 2018
  87. 87webFour 'MAGA' stocks are worth a combined $4 trillion. Here's the one to own, say two expertsPippa Stevens — April 26, 2019
  88. 88newsMove over FAANG, here comes MAGA – The tech giants are still in rude healthAugust 4, 2018
  89. 89web'FAANG' 지고 'MAGA' 시대 온다김제림 (Kim Je-rim) — May 29, 2019
  90. 90webDefining 'tech stocks': GAMMA stocks dominateKim Khan — December 22, 2021
  91. 91webMost Valuable Companies in the World – 2020
  92. 92webApple becomes first company to hit $3 trillion market value, then slipsNivedita Balu — January 3, 2022
  93. 93newsApple, Microsoft Dominate U.S. Markets After FAANG Trade FizzlesHardika Singh — News Corp — March 22, 2023
  94. 94webTop Companies 2021: The 50 best workplaces to grow your career in the U.S.
  95. 95webLife at Google vs. Life at Amazon: From Hiring to Firing (and Everything in Between)Justin Bariso — May 30, 2021
  96. 96web14 things that are harder to get into than HarvardAbby Jackson
  97. 97citationTech Giants, Artificial Intelligence, and the Future of Journalism (Open Access)Jason Paul Whittaker — Routledge — February 11, 2019
  98. 98webThe 'Big Five' Could Destroy the Tech EcosystemConor Sen — November 15, 2017
  99. 99webCan sizzling Magnificent Seven trade keep powering US stocks in 2024?Lewis Krauskopf — December 29, 2023
  100. 100webA $803 billion company most people have never heard of just knocked Tesla out of the Magnificent 7Geoff Colvin
  101. 101webMagnificent 7 Stocks: What You Need To Know
  102. 102webCompanies ranked by Market Cap - CompaniesMarketCap.com
  103. 103webThe 'Magnificent Seven' tech stocks drive markets higher as AI mania grips investorsMay 30, 2023
  104. 104webThese Seven Tech Stocks Are Driving the MarketKarl Russell et al. — January 22, 2024
  105. 105webMagnificent 7 Eye $13-Trillion Market Cap: 'They Are Sucking All The Air Out Of The Universe,' Wall Street Veteran SaysPiero Cingari
  106. 106newsMagnificent 7 profits now exceed almost every country in the world. Should we be worried?Elliot Smith — CNBC — February 19, 2024
  107. 107newsMorgan Stanley says Magnificent Seven now make up 31% of the S&P 500Fred Imbert — CNBC — July 1, 2024
  108. 108newsIs the U.S. stock market too 'concentrated'? Here's what to knowGreg Iacurci — CNBC — July 1, 2024
  109. 109news$1 trillion wipeout: Market rout punishes megacap techRohan Goswami et al. — CNBC — August 5, 2024
  110. 110webThe Twenty-Six Words that Created the Internet, book review: The biography of a lawWendy M. Grossman
  111. 111reportEconomic Value of Internet Intermediaries and the Role of Liability ProtectionsChristian Dippon — NERA Economic Consulting — 2017
  112. 112webSection 230 Is 25 Years Old, And It's Never Been More ImportantAdi Robertson — The Verge — February 8, 2021
  113. 113webSilicon Valley Abandons the Culture That Made It the Envy of the WorldAlexis C. Madrigal — January 15, 2020
  114. 114webAmazon spent nearly $23 billion on R&D last year—more than any other U.S. companyRani Molla — April 9, 2018
  115. 115web'It's just the beginning': Covid push to digital boosts big tech profitsMay 1, 2021
  116. 116webWhy tech industry monopolies could be a 'curse' for societyJanuary 17, 2019
  117. 117webWhere New Industries Get Their Start: Rebooting the Startup EconomyTim Wu — July 16, 2019
  118. 118webMonopoly Myths: Is Big Tech Creating 'Kill Zones'?Joe Kennedy — November 9, 2020
  119. 119magazineFighting the Big Fight: What the Cloud Wars Mean for Netflix, Spotify, AirbnbChris Haroun — April 10, 2014
  120. 120newsTech giants fight 'cloud wars' deep in the oceanMay 24, 2021
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  122. 122newsThe rules of the tech game are changingFebruary 27, 2021
  123. 123newsOpinion: Might the left and right unite in their shared hatred of Big Tech?Mark Kingwell — January 7, 2022
  124. 124newsRegulating Online Speech Can Be a Terrible IdeaFarhad Manjoo — May 19, 2022
  125. 125webThe damnable religious inklings of the Big Tech libertarianJoel Thayer — February 28, 2022
  126. 126webThe Acronym Behind Our Wildest AI Dreams and NightmaresÉmile P Torres — June 15, 2023
  127. 127webThe Wide Angle: Understanding TESCREAL — the Weird Ideologies Behind Silicon Valley's Rightward TurnDave Troy — May 1, 2023
  128. 128webWe need to examine the beliefs of today's tech luminariesAnjana Ahuja — May 10, 2023
  129. 129journalThe TESCREAL bundle: Eugenics and the promise of utopia through artificial general intelligenceTimnit Gebru et al. — April 14, 2024
  130. 130bookThe Politics and Ethics of TranshumanismAlexander Thomas — Bristol University Press — 2024
  131. 131webTech Billionaires Need to Stop Trying to Make the Science Fiction They Grew Up on RealCharles Stross — December 20, 2023
  132. 132newsHow Republicans pushed social media companies to stop fighting election misinformationBrian Fung — October 21, 2024
  133. 133webGOP Pushes Bills to Allow Social Media 'Censorship' LawsuitsAnthony Izaguirre — 2021-03-07
  134. 134magazineDeplatforming Is a Dangerous GameDeclan McCullagh — February 2019
  135. 135newsAnalysis The Technology 202: New report calls conservative claims of social media censorship 'a form of disinformation'
  136. 136webTech – Bias Report 2021
  137. 137newsLiberals Are Left Out in the Cold as Social Media Veers RightSheera Frenkel — November 17, 2024
  138. 138newsNearly 40% of young Americans get their news from influencers. Many of them lean to the right, study findsLiam Reilly — November 18, 2024
  139. 139newsAmazon, Apple, Facebook and Google grilled on Capitol Hill over their market powerJuly 29, 2020
  140. 140webIn attacking Amazon, Matt Gaetz boosts a terrorist organizationAli Breland
  141. 141webTrump Blames 'Big Media, Big Tech' as he Rails Against Election 'Fraud' Without EvidenceNovember 5, 2020
  142. 142webThis is what Trump told supporters before many stormed Capitol Hill.
  143. 143newsAngela Merkel finds Twitter's block on Trump's account 'problematic'January 11, 2021
  144. 144web'Problematic': Germany's Angela Merkel calls out Twitter over Trump banJanuary 11, 2021
  145. 145webWhy Hunter Biden's Laptop Will Never Go AwayKaitlyn Tiffany — April 28, 2022
  146. 146webHunter Biden laptop confirmation proves Big Tech's biasMay 31, 2022
  147. 147webYouTube Bans and Then Unbans Right Wing Watch, a Media Watchdog Devoted to Exposing Right-Wing ConspiraciesJustin Baragona, Adam Rawnsley — June 28, 2021
  148. 148webHere's how we can break up Big TechElizabeth Warren — March 8, 2019
  149. 149webFacebook proves Elizabeth Warren's point by deleting her ads about breaking up FacebookMakena Kelly — March 11, 2019
  150. 150webElizabeth Warren says Facebook proved her point that it has too much power by removing her adsLauren Feiner — March 12, 2019
  151. 151newsFacebook, X, YouTube to do more against online hate speech, EU saysFoo Yun Chee — January 20, 2025
  152. 152newsFacebook Says Criticism of Its Russia Response Is 'Unfair'Deepa Seetharaman — November 15, 2018
  153. 153webCambridge Analytica, the shady data firm that might be a key Trump-Russia link, explainedSean Illing — October 16, 2017
  154. 154newsSenate Faults Google, Other Tech Giants for Role in Russian Election MeddlingGeorgia Wells et al. — October 8, 2019
  155. 155newsTech Giants Prepared for 2016-Style Meddling. But the Threat Has Changed.Kevin Roose et al. — March 29, 2020
  156. 156newsYouTube says it's getting better at taking down videos that break its rules. They still number in the millions.
  157. 157news'Ya Basta Facebook' Says Company Must Curb Misinformation In SpanishShannon Bond — March 16, 2021
  158. 158newsJust 12 People Are Behind Most Vaccine Hoaxes On Social Media, Research Shows
  159. 159webE&C Committee Announces Hearing with Tech CEOs on the Misinformation and Disinformation Plaguing Online PlatformsFebruary 18, 2021
  160. 160newsGoogle, Facebook Twitter grilled in US on fake newsMarch 25, 2021
  161. 161webBiden softens criticism of Facebook after accusing company of 'killing people'July 19, 2021
  162. 162magazineFacebook Is Designed to Spread Covid MisinformationJacob Silverman et al. — July 19, 2021
  163. 163webDefying rules, anti-vaccine accounts thrive on social mediaApril 20, 2021
  164. 164webBig Tech's Heavy Hand Around the GlobeSeptember 8, 2020
  165. 165webHere are all the major US tech companies blocked behind China's 'Great Firewall'Paige Leskin
  166. 166webFarmers' protest page was flagged as spam, clarifies Facebook a day after blocking accountDecember 21, 2020
  167. 167newsTwitter Blocks Accounts in India as Modi Pressures Social MediaKaran Deep Singh — February 10, 2021
  168. 168webFacebook did not ban Bajrang Dal due to concern for employees' safety, business prospects: ReportDecember 14, 2020
  169. 169webApple, Google raise new concerns by yanking Russian appSeptember 22, 2021
  170. 170webRussia blocks access to Facebook and TwitterMarch 4, 2022
  171. 171newsRussia labels Meta an 'extremist organization', says WhatsApp can stayMarch 21, 2022
  172. 172webFacebook, Google others face higher fines in Russia as Kremlin cracks downSeptember 21, 2021
  173. 173webThe Censorship-industrial Complex: How Top Biden White House Officials Coerced Big Tech to Censor Americans, True Information, and Critics of the Biden Administration: Interim Staff Report of the Committee on the Judiciary and the Select Subcommittee on the Weaponization of the Federal GovernmentU.S. House of Representatives — May 1, 2024
  174. 174newsSocial media companies engaged in 'vast surveillance,' FTC finds, calling status quo 'unacceptable'Daysia Tolentino — NBC News — September 19, 2024
  175. 175newsThe FTC says social media companies can't be trusted to regulate themselvesGaby Del Valle — Vox Media — September 19, 2024
  176. 176reportA Look Behind the Screens: Examining the Data Practices of Social Media and Video Streaming ServicesFederal Trade Commission — 2024
  177. 177newsTakeaways from AP's investigation into how US tech companies enabled China's digital police stateDake King et al. — Associated Press — September 9, 2025
  178. 178newsHow the AP uncovered US big tech's role in China's digital police stateDake King — Associated Press — September 9, 2025
  179. 179newsSilicon Valley enabled brutal mass detention and surveillance in China, internal documents showDake King et al. — Associated Press — September 9, 2025
  180. 180newsDetailed findings from AP investigation into how US tech firms enabled China's digital police stateDake King et al. — Associated Press — September 9, 2025
  181. 181webWhy Congress's antitrust investigation should make Big Tech nervousJason Del Rey — February 6, 2020
  182. 182webDOJ To Wrap Up Probe Into Big Tech In 2020PYMNTS — December 11, 2019
  183. 183webThe DOJ's latest probe erased $33 billion from Amazon, Apple, Facebook, and Google Markets Insiderfinanzen net GmbH
  184. 184magazineIs Margrethe Vestager championing consumers or her political career?September 14, 2017
  185. 185citationPrivacy, power and censorship: how to regulate big techMichael Boskin — April 29, 2019
  186. 186webIt's almost impossible to function without the big five tech giantsJohn Naughton — February 17, 2019
  187. 187webWhy the Consumer Welfare Standard Should Remain the Bedrock of Antitrust PolicyOctober 5, 2018
  188. 188webInvestment Heroes 2019: Boosting U.S. GrowthDecember 12, 2019
  189. 189bookSoftware Development as an Antitrust Remedy: Lessons from the Enforcement of the Microsoft Communications Protocol Licensing RequirementWilliam PAGE et al. — 2007
  190. 190webFTC to Examine Past Acquisitions by Large Technology CompaniesFebruary 11, 2020
  191. 191webFTC's Bureau of Competition Launches Task Force to Monitor Technology MarketsFebruary 26, 2019
  192. 192citationThe push to break up Big Tech, explainedMatthew Yglesias — May 3, 2019
  193. 193webHouse: Amazon, Facebook, Apple, Google have 'monopoly power,' should be splitKate Cox — January 9, 2021
  194. 194reportInvestigation of Competition in Digital MarketsUnited States House of Representatives — January 2021
  195. 195reportChairman Nadler's Statement for the markup of H.R.3825United States House of Representatives — June 2021
  196. 196reportHow lower pricing could make for an Antitrust case against AmazonMay 2019
  197. 197webBiden signs order to crack down on Big Tech, boost competition 'across the board'Kevin Breuninger et al. — July 9, 2021
  198. 198webBiden signs sweeping executive order that targets Big Tech and aims to push competition in US economyKate Sullivan et al. — July 9, 2021
  199. 199newsU.S. Clears Way for Antitrust Inquiries of Nvidia, Microsoft and OpenAIDavid McCabe — June 5, 2024
  200. 200newsU.S. regulators to open antitrust probes into Nvidia, Microsoft and OpenAIHayden Field et al. — CNBC — June 6, 2024
  201. 201newsGoogle loses antitrust case over searchRohan Goswami et al. — CNBC — August 5, 2024
  202. 202newsGoogle Loses Antitrust Case Over Search-Engine DominanceMiles Kruppa et al. — News Corp — August 5, 2024
  203. 203newsGoogle's digital ad network declared an illegal monopoly, joining its search engine in penalty boxMichael Liedtke — Associated Press — April 17, 2025
  204. 204newsGoogle hit with second antitrust blow, adding to concerns about future of ads businessJennifer Elias — CNBC — April 17, 2025
  205. 205newsMeta prevails in historic FTC antitrust case, won't have to break off WhatsApp, InstagramBarbara Ortutay — Associated Press — November 18, 2025
  206. 206newsMeta wins FTC antitrust trial that focused on WhatsApp, InstagramJonathan Vanian — CNBC — November 18, 2025
  207. 207inlineThe Verge, June 16, 2020 EU Opens Apple Antitrust Investigations into App Store and Apple Pay practices
  208. 208inlineOpen Markets Institute, The Corner Newsletter, June 25, 2020, Open Markets Examines the European Commission's Newly Announced Investigation into Potentially Anti-competitive Practices by Apple
  209. 209inlineParliament of the European Union, Hearing of Margrethe Vestager 8 Oct. 2019 p. 28
  210. 210newsExclusive Big Tech targeted by U.S. and EU in draft memo ahead of tech and trade meetingNandita Bose — September 23, 2021
  211. 211webE.U. Takes Aim at Big Tech's Power With Landmark Digital ActAdam Satariano — March 24, 2022
  212. 212webEuropean Union reaches provisional agreement on antitrust law targeting tech giantsKarissa Bell — March 24, 2022
  213. 213webEU agrees on landmark law aimed at forcing Big Tech firms to tackle illegal contentRyan Browne — April 22, 2022
  214. 214newsEU lawmakers pass landmark tech rules, but enforcement a worryFoo Yun Chee — July 5, 2022
  215. 215newsEU confirms the six tech giants subject to its strict new competition lawsKris Holt — September 7, 2023
  216. 216webCommission finds Apple and Meta in breach of the Digital Markets Act - Digital Markets Act (DMA)
  217. 217newsApple charged with breaching EU tech rules, faces another probeFoo Yun Chee — June 24, 2024
  218. 218journalFalse equivalencies: Online activism from left to rightDeen Freelon et al. — September 4, 2020
  219. 219webThe Websites Sustaining Britain's Far-Right InfluencersFrank Andrews et al. — February 24, 2021
  220. 220webTech Dispatch: Federated Social Media Platforms
  221. 221webDefinition of fediverse
  222. 222magazineWhat Is Web3, Anyway?Gilad Edelman
  223. 223webCrypto's networked collaboration will drive Web 3.0Harry Alford — September 16, 2021
  224. 224webCan the Real Web 3.0 Please Stand Up?Setrag Khoshafian — March 12, 2021
  225. 225inlineFenwick, Mark and Jurcys, Paulius, The Contested Meaning of Web3 and Why it Matters for (IP) Lawyers (January 27, 2022). Available at SSRN: or
  226. 226webWhat Is Web3 and Why Are All the Crypto People Suddenly Talking About It?Aaron Mak — November 9, 2021
  227. 227newsGoing Dark: The Internet Behind The Internet25 May 2014
  228. 228magazineHacker Lexicon: What Is the Dark Web?Andy Greenberg — 19 November 2014
  229. 229webClearing Up Confusion – Deep Web vs. Dark Web2014-03-27
  230. 230newsWhat is the dark web? How to access the dark website – How to turn out the lights and access the dark web (and why you might want to)Matt Egan — 12 January 2015
  231. 231journalData Collection and the Regulatory StateAhmed Ghappour — 2017-09-01
  232. 232journalSearching Places Unknown: Law Enforcement Jurisdiction on the Dark WebAhmed Ghappour — 2017-04-01
  233. 233newsThe Deep Web vs. The Dark Web: Do You Know The Difference?Jane Solomon — 6 May 2015
  234. 234webThe dark web Revealed.
  235. 235webThe Strategic Framing of "Little Tech": How Narratives Shape Policy PerceptionAlex Wagner — 2025-05-21
  236. 236webExclusive: "Little Tech" launches new policy coalitionApril 2, 2025
  237. 237webVC money is fueling a global boom in worker surveillance techJune 3, 2025
  238. 238webEric Schmidt's Gang Of Four: Google, Apple, Amazon, And FacebookErick Schonfeld — May 31, 2011
  239. 239webWe are letting Amazon and Apple 'avoid taxes, invade privacy, and destroy jobs,' says NYU professorBob Pisani — October 3, 2017
  240. 240bookThe Age of the Platform: How Amazon, Apple, Facebook, and Google Have Redefined BusinessPhil Simon — Motion Publishing — October 22, 2011
  241. 241bookThe Four: The Hidden DNA of Amazon, Apple, Facebook, and GoogleScott Galloway — Random House — 2017
  242. 242newsFace aux Gafam, les députés adoptent le droit voisinFrançois Bougon — Le Monde — May 21, 2019
  243. 243journalL'effet GAFAM : stratégies et logiques de l'oligopole de l'internetNikos Smyrnaios — NecPlus — 2016