Bengal War

• 1. Economic Foundations of Bengal

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  In the early 1700s, Bengal stood as the 'Paradise of Nations' within the Mughal Empire. This province alone accounted for 40% of all Dutch exports from Asia during that era. It served as a major exporter of silk and cotton textiles alongside steel and saltpeter. Agricultural and industrial produce flowed out of the region to global markets. The British East India Company had been trading in the East Indies since the early 17th century. An attack on one of their factories by the Dutch in 1623 forced them to abandon South-east Asia. They shifted focus almost entirely onto the Indian Subcontinent and Bengal specifically. The company first acquired a lease on the banks of the river Hughli in 1658. They later established Fort William in 1696 as their chief fort in the region. Throughout this period, their relationship with Mughal authorities remained imbalanced. They mostly acted as Junior partners to Mughal authority without conflict. The only exception involved military force which ended terribly for the company. They were forced to swear fealty to the Mughals just to get their factories back.

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• 2. Rise of Provincial Autonomy

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  The provincial government was separated into two major cabinets under the Mughal system. The Nizamat presided over by a Subahdar oversaw general administration and defense. The Diwani presided over by a Chief Diwan managed revenue administration. Both positions ultimately answered to the Emperor until internal power struggles changed everything. A bitter rivalry between Royal prince Azim-ush-Shan and his Chief Diwan Murshid Quli Khan erupted in 1704. Aurangzeb shifted the former elsewhere leaving Murshid Quli Khan as sole de-facto governor of all of Bengal Subah. This man died three years after taking full control. Aside from striking coins in the Mughal Emperor's name, Bengal became independent under Murshid in all but name. This independence became the norm in many other Subahs following the death of the great emperor. Farrukhsiyar officially granted the title of Nawab to him in 1717. This decree allowed the English to grow their own influence in this anarchy. Farrukhsiyar also issued a Farman which granted the EIC the right to trade within Bengal. It coupled with some exemptions for taxation that seemed minor on paper. Company officials viewed it as granting them encompassing devolved sovereignty over Bengal. They saw themselves as equals to even the newly christened Nawab. This perception sowed the seeds of tension between the two powers.

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• 3. Escalating Commercial Tensions

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  The outbreak of the Austrian War of Succession in Europe triggered numerous wars against the French. Mahé de La Bourdonnais landed off Madras with a Naval squadron in September 1746. The city fell after just three days of siege. A failed counterattack by the British and the Nawab of Arcot Anwaruddin Khan followed. The war ended in 1748 with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle restoring the status quo ante bellum. Between the Company's notion of sovereignty and the Carnatic wars, tensions with the Nawab ran high. Nawab Alivardi Khan ruled from 1740 until 1756 with a strict attitude toward Europeans. Friction grew between him and the British who frequently complained of his taxing. He used revenue to finance defenses against the Marathas during their invasions of Bengal. Siraj ud-Daulah ascended to the throne in April of 1756 deeply suspicious of large profits made by the British. He was troubled by their notion of sovereignty while constructing a fort at Calcutta. He began seeking an alliance with France despite trying to keep negotiation lines open. Negotiations broke down soon after the outbreak of the Seven Years' War. Both the French and the British improved their fortifications in Bengal which Siraj opposed. The French yielded but the British did not sparking war between both parties.

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• 4. The First Anglo-Mughal Conflict

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  On the 1st of June 1756 a column of the Nawab's men marched on the Company factory at Cossimbazar. They seized it easily before setting off towards the other factory at Calcutta. Calcutta was besieged on June 16th and fell four days later. News reached Madras on August 16th prompting the company to send a detachment under Colonel Robert Clive. Clive aimed to retake Calcutta and restore the Company's previous privileges. The ensuing conflict lasted nearly a full year culminating at the Battle of Plassey on the 23rd of June 1757. In the aftermath Siraj ud-Daulah was arrested tried and executed by the British. Mir Jafar would be placed on the throne as a puppet of the British up till his removal in 1760. His son-in-law Mir Qasim took his place following that event. Upon his ascension Qasim awarded the company with lavish gifts just like Mir Jafar had done. He too realized the difficulty of appeasing the company with royal coffers at Murshidabad nearly depleted. Multiple issues regarding trade arose between them immediately.

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• 5. Trade Disputes Under Mir Qasim

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  To enrich themselves the company passed an enactment allowing country goods with European passes to descend the Hooghly river without paying transit duty. Goods unprovided with such passes should pay a heavy tax instead. An English flag flying over a boat or a fleet of boats exempted them from search. Bengalis dressed as English Sepoys appearing on board also sufficed for exemption. This system disorganized local trade so greatly that entire cities were left impoverished. Bengali merchants were left destitute by these policies. When Qasim retaliated he placed a modest 9% duty on European traders' private goods against a 40% duty for Indians. The Company revolted even after he reduced it from 9% to 2.5% on salt. They further refused to admit the right of local faujdars or police officers to adjudge disputes. Finally Qasim abolished all custom duties on internal trade altogether. The Company objected demanding reinstatement which Qasim refused. This refusal charted the path towards war directly.

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• 6. Military Campaigns of 1763-1764

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  Hostilities officially began on the 25th of June 1763 when Company agent William Ellis attacked Patna. He brought a force of some 300 British infantrymen and 2,500 sepoys. A counterattack of some 10,000 Sepoys and rebels loyal to Mir Qasim led by Armenian mercenary general Gurgin Khan followed soon after. Ellis suffered defeat and was captured in this engagement. Command passed to Major Thomas Adams who began the campaign on July 2nd. The first major engagement occurred at Katwa where Qasim held numerical superiority and superior artillery. Internal strife plagued his column though leading to a smaller band of cavalry irregulars engaging Lieutenant Glenn's force near Agradwip on the morning of the 17th. Hours of fighting resulted in their defeat as the British pressed toward Katwa. The fort surrendered with feeble resistance shortly thereafter. On the 19th of July Mohammed Taki Shah moved the vanguard to Takwa. It saw one of the bloodiest and best-contested battles of the whole war. Taki Shah was killed and Qasim forced to retreat. Mir Qasim set up defenses near Jangipur on Sooty on the plain of Giria. British forces under Major Thomas Adams attacked on the 2nd of August 1763 forcing him to retreat to Udaynala.

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• 7. The Decisive Battle of Buxar

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  On the 23rd of October 1764, following the third Patna battle, British forces under Major Hector Munro carried a decisive victory over Indian allies at Buxar. They achieved this despite numeric inferiority against the coalition west of Patna. After the battle Mir Qasim's and Shujah-ud-Daula's forces retreated into Gangetic Doab. Major John Carnac pursued them closely. They managed to join forces with a Marathi army headed by Malhar Rao Holkar. In May 1765 the British successfully defeated them after a rout followed. Malhar Rao fled to Kalpi while Mir Qasim sued for peace. The conflict had shifted from local skirmishes to a massive regional struggle involving multiple powers. The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and Awadhi Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula had forged an alliance against the East India Company. This strategic partnership aimed to halt British expansion but ultimately failed against disciplined colonial forces. Heavy losses in the Bengal army marked the end of organized resistance in that region.

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• 8. Establishment of Colonial Sovereignty

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  As a result of the war the EIC became an indispensable military and fiscal instrument for the Mughal Emperor. He relied on the Company's military protection and financial means moving forward. By controlling the Bengal diwani in exchange for a fixed payment, the company became effectively sovereign in Bengal and Northern India. A document granting revenues to the EIC was treated as a proto-constitution or Magna Carta. The company was saddled with a large cost they were forced to continue carrying due to commercial reasons. Political realities demanded their continued presence despite heavy expenses. By 1773 East India company took complete control of the former Mughal province of Bengal. It marked the beginning of direct British rule in Bengal. The Treaty of Allahabad signed on the 16th of August 1765 ended the Anglo-Bengal War officially. A coalition consisting of the Mughal Empire, the Awadh Subah and the Bengal Subah lost decisively. The British victory reshaped the political landscape of South Asia forever.

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