Aztecs
The Nahuatl word aztēcatl means "people from Aztlan," a mythical place of origin toward the north. Migration stories tell how the Mexica tribe traveled with other tribes, including the Tlaxcalteca and Tepaneca. Their tribal deity Huitzilopochtli told them to split from the other Aztec tribes and take on the name "Mexica." At their arrival in the Valley of Mexico, many city-states existed, but the most powerful were Colhuacan to the south and Azcapotzalco to the west. The Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco expelled the Mexica from Chapultepec and executed the first royal family except Queen Chimalxochitl II. In 1299, Colhuacan ruler Cocoxtli permitted them to settle in the empty barrens of Tizapan. They eventually married into Colhua families to appropriate this heritage. After living in Colhuacan, the Mexica were again expelled and forced to move. According to legend, in 1323, they saw an eagle perched on a prickly pear cactus eating a snake. This vision indicated where they should build their settlement. The Mexica founded Tenochtitlan on a small swampy island in Lake Texcoco in 1325. Acamapichtli was elected as the first Huey Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan in 1376.
In the first fifty years after founding, the Mexica were tributary to Azcapotzalco under ruler Tezozomoc. They supplied warriors for conquest campaigns and received part of the tribute. In 1418, Azcapotzalco initiated war against the Acolhua of Texcoco and killed their ruler Ixtlilxochitl. Even though Ixtlilxochitl was married to Chimalpopoca's daughter, the Mexica ruler continued to support Tezozomoc. Tezozomoc died in 1426, and his sons began a struggle for rulership. During this power struggle, Chimalpopoca died, probably killed by Maxtla. Itzcoatl became the next Mexica tlatoani. He petitioned for an alliance with Nezahualcoyotl, son of the slain Texcocan ruler, against Maxtla. Itzcoatl also allied with Totoquihuaztli, ruler of the Tepanec city of Tlacopan. The Triple Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan besieged Azcapotzalco. In 1428 they destroyed the city and sacrificed Maxtla. Through this victory, Tenochtitlan became the dominant city-state in the Valley of Mexico. Itzcoatl secured power by conquering southern lake city-states including Culhuacan, Xochimilco, Cuitlahuac, and Mizquic. These states had economies based on chinampa agriculture.
Motecuzoma I Ilhuicamina was elected tlatoani in 1440. New rulers often began their rule with coronation campaigns against rebellious provinces. Motecuzoma tested attitudes by requesting laborers for the Great Temple enlargement. Only Chalco refused to provide laborers, leading to hostilities until the 1450s. He reconquered cities in Morelos and Guerrero, then undertook new conquests in the Huaxtec region and Mixtec regions of Oaxaca. City-states like Tlaxcalan, Cholula, and Huexotzinco emerged as competitors. Motecuzoma initiated low-intensity warfare called Flower Wars against them. The empire reached its maximum extent in 1519 before Spanish arrival. Axayacatl conquered independent Mexica city Tlatelolco in 1473. In 1478, 1479, Aztec forces were repelled by Tarascans at Tlaximaloyan, losing most of his 32,000 men. Ahuitzotl became ruler after Tizoc's death in 1485. He inaugurated the enlarged Great Temple in 1487. For this ceremony, an unprecedented number of war captives were sacrificed, some sources giving a figure of 80,400 prisoners over four days. Probably the actual figure was much smaller but still numbered several thousand.
Aztec society was organized around maize agriculture using chinampas. These artificial islands converted shallow waters into highly fertile gardens cultivated year-round. Chinampas yielded seven crops annually. Estimates suggest ten square kilometers of chinampas could feed 180,000 people. Farmers moved between raised beds by canoe through narrow canals. Cities like Tenochtitlan collected human waste for fertilizer. The lake provided proteins from fish, amphibians, shrimp, insects, and waterfowl. No shortage of protein existed among inhabitants. Excess food allowed significant portions of the population to dedicate themselves to trades other than farming. Women wove textiles from agave fibers and cotton. Men produced ceramics, obsidian tools, and luxury goods like beadwork and featherwork. Markets distributed products through a network of supervisors. A typical town held weekly markets every five days while larger cities held daily markets. Cortés reported the central market of Tlatelolco was visited by 60,000 people daily. Small purchases used cacao beans; a rabbit cost thirty beans. Larger purchases used standardized lengths of cotton cloth called quachtli. About twenty quachtli supported a commoner for one year in Tenochtitlan.
Nahuas' metaphysics centers around Ometeotl, a single dynamic sacred power manifesting as supreme god and lesser gods. Priests and educated upper classes held monistic views while popular religion embraced polytheism. Public ritual practices involved food, storytelling, dance, ceremonial warfare, and the Mesoamerican ballgame. Human sacrifice served as payment for or effecting the continuation of days and life cycles. Four main deities were Tlaloc, Huitzilopochtli, Quetzalcoatl, and Tezcatlipoca. The Great Temple had two shrines on top dedicated to Tlaloc and Huitzilopochtli. Other major deities included Coatlicue, Chalchiutlicue, Xipe Totec, and Huehueteotl. Festivals scheduled government ceremonies and war around key transition dates in the Aztec calendar. The temple orientation embodied the totality of the Mexica vision of the universe. It acted as an embodiment of living myth where all sacred power was concentrated. Skull racks tzompantli displayed sacrificial victims outside the sacred precinct. The temple has been excavated in modern Mexico City with rich dedicatory offerings.
Moctezuma II received news of ships landing near Cempoallan in 1517. In 1519 he learned of Hernán Cortés's arrival who marched toward Tlaxcala. On the 8th of November 1519 Moctezuma II received Cortés and his troops on the causeway south of Tenochtitlan. He invited Spaniards to stay as guests. When Aztec troops destroyed a Spanish camp on the Gulf Coast, Cortés ordered Moctezuma to execute commanders responsible. At this point power shifted toward Spaniards holding Moctezuma prisoner. Hostilities broke out in June 1520 culminating in the massacre in the Great Temple. During fighting Moctezuma was killed either by Spaniards or by Mexica themselves considering him a traitor. Cuitláhuac succeeded him but ruled only eighty days perhaps dying in smallpox. Cuauhtémoc became last independent tlatoani continuing fierce defense. After siege destruction Cuauhtémoc captured on the 13th of August 1521 marking beginning of Spanish hegemony. Spaniards held Cuauhtémoc captive until tortured and executed during expedition to Honduras in 1525.
Following victory over Triple Alliance, Cuauhtémoc not immediately deposed while in captivity. Spanish maintained nominal authority while establishing foothold in Valley of Mexico. Successors directly installed by Spanish to facilitate easier control. These appointed rulers known as cuauhtlatoani meaning "one who speaks like eagle." They did not undergo traditional investiture ceremony invalidating their authority in eyes of subjects. Three cuauhtlatoani reigned before dynastic restoration in 1565: Tlacotzin Motelchiuhtzin Xochiquentzin. Restoration entailed revalidation of role of Mexica nobility in selecting tlatoque. Four tlatoani followed including Huanitzin Tehuetzquititzin Cecetzin Cipac. Entire Nahua communities subject to forced labor under encomienda system. Aztec education abolished replaced by limited church education. Religious practices forcibly replaced with Catholicism. Nobles acted as intermediaries conveying taxes and mobilizing labor for new overlords facilitating establishment of Spanish colonial rule. Indigenous scribes trained to write alphabetic texts in Nahuatl mainly for local purposes under Spanish colonial rule.
Up Next
Common questions
What does the Nahuatl word aztēcatl mean?
The Nahuatl word aztēcatl means people from Aztlan, a mythical place of origin toward the north. Migration stories tell how the Mexica tribe traveled with other tribes including the Tlaxcalteca and Tepaneca.
When did the Mexica found Tenochtitlan on Lake Texcoco?
The Mexica founded Tenochtitlan on a small swampy island in Lake Texcoco in 1325 after seeing an eagle perched on a prickly pear cactus eating a snake. Acamapichtli was elected as the first Huey Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan in 1376.
Who became the last independent tlatoani of the Aztec Empire?
Cuauhtémoc became the last independent tlatoani continuing fierce defense until his capture on the 13th of August 1521 marking the beginning of Spanish hegemony. Spaniards held Cuauhtémoc captive until tortured and executed during expedition to Honduras in 1525.
How many crops could chinampas yield annually for Aztec society?
Chinampas yielded seven crops annually by converting shallow waters into highly fertile gardens cultivated year-round. Estimates suggest ten square kilometers of chinampas could feed 180,000 people.
Which four main deities were worshipped in the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan?
Four main deities were Tlaloc, Huitzilopochtli, Quetzalcoatl, and Tezcatlipoca. The Great Temple had two shrines on top dedicated to Tlaloc and Huitzilopochtli.