Assam
The first dated mention of the region comes from the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea in the 1st century. Ptolemy's Geographia followed this reference in the 2nd century, calling the land Kirrhadia after its Kirata population. Archaeological evidence indicates a civilization existed around the 2nd century BCE at Sri Surya Pahar. A rock cut stupa there dates to 200 BCE and stands contemporary with caves in Maharashtra. The classical period up to the 12th century saw the region east of the Karatoya River known as Kamarupa. This kingdom spanned from the Karatoya River to near present Sadiya. It covered the entire Brahmaputra Valley and parts of Bangladesh. Three dynasties ruled this vast territory over centuries. The Varmanas governed from c. 350 CE to 650 CE. The Mlechchha dynasty held power between 655 CE and 900 CE. The Kamarupa-Palas reigned from 900 CE until 1100 CE. Their capitals were located in Guwahati, Tezpur, and North Gauhati respectively. All three dynasties claimed descent from Narakasura. Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the region during the reign of Bhaskaravarman around 600 CE. He recorded his travels through these ancient lands.
In the year 1228 the Tai-Ahoms came to the Brahmaputra Valley under the leadership of Sukapha. They brought 9,000 men from Mong Mao, a Tai state situated in South-Western Yunnan of China. Sukapha established his capital city on a hillock named Charaideo in 1253. For more than two and a half centuries they upheld dominance through military prowess. The reign of Suhungmung marked the first massive expansion of the kingdom. In 1522, 23 the Chutia kingdom was annexed and placed under Sadiya-Khowa-Gohain administration. Suhungmung expanded westwards till Marangi beyond the Dhansiri River. The Kacharis tried to regain lost territory but were defeated. Their capital Dimapur was sacked by Ahom forces. A new dependent king Detsung was set up on the Kachari throne. Detsung proved disloyal and revolted against the Ahoms before being executed. A new dependent king Nirbhaynarayan replaced him. From then on Kachari kings were regarded as thapita sanchita meaning established and maintained by Ahom rulers. Suhungmung's reign also witnessed the first Muslim-invasions of the kingdom. After a series of battles invaders were roundly defeated and chased up to Karatoya River. The Sultan of Bengal made peace with the king after seeing the approaching army.
The discovery of Camellia sinensis occurred in Assam in 1834. Testing took place in London during 1836, 37. British companies began renting land from 1839 onwards. Tea plantations proliferated in Eastern Assam where soil and climate suited cultivation best. Problems arose with imported Han Chinese labourers from China. Hostility from native Assamese resulted in migration of forced labourers from central and eastern parts of India. By the 1850s the industry started seeing some profits. In 1861 investors were allowed to own land in Assam. Substantial progress followed with invention of new technologies for processing tea during the 1870s. Despite commercial success tea labourers continued working under poor conditions. Fearful of government interference the Indian Tea Association formed in 1888. They lobbied successfully to retain the status quo. Conditions improved very little even after independence. Discovered in 1889 all major petroleum-gas reserves lie in Upper parts. A recent USGS estimate shows significant oil and gas quantities within the Assam Geologic Province. The region holds about a quarter of India's oil reserves. It produces about 12% of total national petroleum output.
The government of India divided Assam into several states beginning in 1970. In 1963 the Naga Hills district became Nagaland as the 16th state of India. Part of Tuensang was added to Nagaland. In 1970 districts containing Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, and Garo Hills formed an autonomous state within Assam. This became Meghalaya in 1972. Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram separated from Assa in 1972 as union territories. Both became states in 1986. Since restructuring communal tensions and violence remain persistent. Separatist groups began forming along ethnic lines. Demands for autonomy and sovereignty grew resulting in fragmentation. In 1961 legislation made use of Assamese language compulsory. It was withdrawn later under pressure from Bengali speaking people in Cachar. The Brahmaputra Valley saw a six-year Assam Agitation triggered by sudden rise in registered voters on electoral rolls. The agitation ended after an accord signed in 1985 between leaders and Union Government. This accord remained unimplemented causing simmering discontent. Post 1970s experienced growth of armed separatist groups such as United Liberation Front of Asom. National Democratic Front of Bodoland also emerged during this period.
Assam has been major site of migration since Partition of subcontinent. First wave composed largely of Bengali Hindu refugees arriving during establishment of India and Pakistan in 1947, 1951. Around 274,455 Bengali Hindu refugees arrived from what is now called Bangladesh as permanent settlers. Between 1952, 1958 another patch brought around 212,545 Bengali Hindus to the state permanently. After 1964 East Pakistan riots many more poured into Assam as refugees. Number rose sharply to 1,068,455 in 1968. Fourth patches numbering around 347,555 arrived after Bangladesh liberation war of 1971. Most decided to stay back in Assam permanently afterwards. During Assam Movement from 1979, 1985 All Assam Students Union demanded stop influx of immigrants. They sought deportation of those already settled. During this period 855 people died in conflicts with migrants and police according to AASU figures. In 1985 Indian Government signed Assam accord to settle conflict. Since 2010 government undertook updating National Register of Citizens for Assam. In 2018 all 32.2 million residents were subject to citizenship review. August 2019 India released names of 2 million residents determined non-citizens. Names struck off Register depriving them rights. Government began deporting non-citizens while detaining 1,000 others same year.
Assam is one of richest biodiversity zones in world consisting tropical rainforests and riverine grasslands. Two UNESCO World Heritage Sites protect wildlife here: Kaziranga National Park on bank of Brahmaputra River and Manas Wildlife Sanctuary near border with Bhutan. Kaziranga serves as refuge for fast-disappearing Indian one-horned rhinoceros. State provides last wild habitats for Asian elephant among other endangered species. White-winged wood duck or deohanh found globally important area. Bengal florican and black-breasted parrotbill also inhabit these regions. Red-headed vulture and white-rumped vulture nest within protected areas. Greater adjutant birds thrive alongside Jerdon's babbler and rufous-necked hornbills. Bengal tiger roams freely through these forests. Pygmy hog populations persist despite threats from habitat loss. Wild water buffalo herds remain largest in world according to Choudhury surveys. Around 820 bird species exist within state boundaries. Mammal diversity reaches approximately 190 species total. Dibru Saikhowa National Park famous for feral horses grazing freely. Nameri National Park and Orang National Park add further protection layers. Sal tree forests cover large portions of landscape displaying greenery year round due to abundant rainfall.
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Common questions
When was the first dated mention of Assam recorded in historical texts?
The first dated mention of Assam appears in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea during the 1st century. Ptolemy's Geographia followed this reference in the 2nd century, calling the land Kirrhadia after its Kirata population.
Which dynasty ruled Assam from approximately 350 CE to 650 CE and what were their capitals?
The Varmanas governed Assam from c. 350 CE to 650 CE with capitals located in Guwahati, Tezpur, and North Gauhati respectively. All three dynasties claimed descent from Narakhasura and spanned the region east of the Karatoya River.
Who led the Tai-Ahoms into the Brahmaputra Valley and when did they establish their capital city?
Sukapha led the Tai-Ahoms to the Brahmaputra Valley under his leadership in the year 1228. He established his capital city on a hillock named Charaideo in 1253.
When was Camellia sinensis discovered in Assam and how many percent of India's oil reserves does the state hold today?
The discovery of Camellia sinensis occurred in Assam in 1834 while testing took place in London during 1836 and 1837. The region holds about a quarter of India's oil reserves according to recent USGS estimates.
In which years did Nagaland and Meghalaya separate from Assam to become states of India?
Nagaland became the 16th state of India in 1963 after the Naga Hills district separated from Assam. Meghalaya formed as an autonomous state within Assam in 1970 before becoming a full state in 1972 alongside Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram.
How many residents were determined non-citizens when India released names from the National Register of Citizens in August 2019?
India released names of 2 million residents determined non-citizens in August 2019 during the citizenship review process. This action deprived them of rights and led to government deportation efforts while detaining 1,000 others same year.