Animation
In 1833, a stroboscopic disc known as the phenakistiscope introduced the principle of modern animation. This device required viewers to look into a mirror while spinning a disk with sequential images painted on it. The rapid succession of pictures created an illusion of movement that captivated audiences for decades. Inventors soon applied this same mechanical principle to other devices like the zoetrope in 1866 and the flip book in 1868. These early machines relied on simple physics rather than complex electronics to generate motion. A praxinoscope appeared in 1877 and used mirrors to reflect images onto a central drum. Film itself emerged as another medium capable of displaying moving pictures through these mechanical tricks. Before cinematography became dominant, master artists and craftsmen had already brought puppets and shadow figures to life using physical manipulation. Magic lantern shows projected moving images by sliding glass plates past a light source. Christiaan Huygens is thought to have invented the magic lantern in the mid-1600s. These analog mechanical media laid the groundwork for all future developments in the field.
J. Stuart Blackton released The Haunted Hotel in 1907 and popularized stop motion techniques during the silent era. His work reportedly inspired Émile Cohl to create Fantasmagorie in 1908. This film stands as the oldest known example of complete traditional hand-drawn animation on standard cinematographic film. Winsor McCay produced detailed hand-drawn animations including Little Nemo in 1911 and Gertie the Dinosaur in 1914. Ladislas Starevich created puppet animations starting from 1910 that gained critical acclaim. John Randolph Bray and animator Earl Hurd patented the cel animation process in the 1910s. This patent dominated the industry for the rest of the century. Felix the Cat debuted in 1919 as the first fully realized anthropomorphic animal character in American animation history. The production of animated cartoons became an actual industry within the United States during this decade. Studios began producing short films that featured exaggerated styles often inspired by comic strips. These early pioneers established the foundation for what would become a global entertainment powerhouse.
Walt Disney's studio released Steamboat Willie in 1928 featuring Mickey Mouse and Minnie Mouse. This film popularized synchronized sound and placed Disney at the forefront of the animation industry. The enormous success of Mickey Mouse marked the start of the golden age of American animation lasting until the 1960s. The United States dominated the world market with a plethora of cel-animated theatrical shorts. Several studios introduced characters that achieved long-lasting popularity including Goofy in 1932 and Donald Duck in 1934. Fleischer Studios produced Koko the Clown in 1918 and Betty Boop in 1930. Warner Bros. Cartoon Studios created Looney Tunes featuring Porky Pig in 1935 and Daffy Duck in 1937. Bugs Bunny appeared between 1938 and 1940 while Tweety arrived in 1942. MGM cartoon studio launched Tom and Jerry in 1940 and Droopy shortly after. Universal Cartoon Studios introduced Woody Woodpecker in 1940. Terrytoons/20th Century Fox presented Mighty Mouse in 1942. United Artists released Pink Panther in 1963. Walt Disney Studios premiered their first animated feature Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in 1937. This film remains one of the highest-grossing traditional animation features ever made.
Animation became very popular on television since the 1950s when sets started to become common in most developed countries. Cartoons were mainly programmed for children during convenient time slots especially US youth Saturday-morning cartoons. Hanna-Barbera Productions had huge hit series such as The Flintstones running from 1960 to 1966. This show was the first prime time animated series. Scooby-Doo has been airing since 1969 and Belgian co-production The Smurfs ran from 1981 to 1989. The constraints of American television programming resulted in cheaper limited animation methods and formulaic scripts. Quality dwindled until more daring animation surfaced in the late 1980s and early 1990s with hit series like The Simpsons. The first cartoon of The Simpsons aired in 1987 before developing into its own show in 1989. SpongeBob SquarePants began in 1999 as part of a renaissance of American animation. Japanese anime TV series became very successful internationally since the 1960s. European producers looking for affordable cel animators often started co-productions with Japanese studios. Barbapapa ran from 1973 to 1977 as a Netherlands Japan France collaboration. Vicky the Viking aired between 1974 and 1975 involving Austria Germany and Japan. Maya the Honey Bee ran from 1975 to 1979 as a Japan Germany production. The Jungle Book appeared in 1989 as an Italy Japan co-production.
Computer animation was gradually developed since the 1940s but 3D wireframe animation started popping up in the mainstream in the 1970s. An early short appearance occurred in the sci-fi thriller Futureworld released in 1976. The Rescuers Down Under became the first feature film completely created digitally without a camera. It used the Computer Animation Production System developed by Pixar in collaboration with The Walt Disney Company in the late 1980s. The so-called 3D style became dominant following the success of Toy Story in 1995. This was the first computer-animated feature in this specific style. Most cel animation studios switched to producing mostly computer-animated films around the 1990s. It proved cheaper and more profitable than traditional methods. New digital tools helped develop new styles while emulating charming characteristics of cel animation. Software programs are now used to color drawings and simulate camera movement effects. The final animated piece is output to delivery media including traditional 35 mm film and newer digital video formats. Some producers use the term tradigital to describe cel animation using significant computer technology.
In 2010 the animation market was estimated to be worth circa US$80 billion. By 2021 the value had increased to an estimated US$370 billion. Animated feature-length films returned the highest gross margins around 52% of all film genres between 2004 and 2013. Animation as an art and industry continues to thrive as of the early 2020s. Many cartoon characters prove lucrative when licensed for merchandise and other media. The Walt Disney Company is the best known example with Mickey Mouse depicted on enormous amounts of products since 1929. Disneyland opened in 1955 featuring attractions based on Disney's cartoon characters. Its success spawned several other Disney theme parks and resorts worldwide. Disney's earnings from the theme parks have relatively often been higher than those from their movies. Awards programs dedicated to animation include ASIFA-Hollywood's Annie Awards and the Emile Awards in Europe. Academy Awards for Best Animated Short Film began in 1932 while Best Animated Feature started in 2002. Beauty and the Beast became the first animated film nominated for Best Picture in 1991.
Traditional animation involves drawing or painting images by hand on transparent celluloid sheets. Animators trace or photocopy drawings onto acetate sheets called cels filled with paints assigned colors. Completed character cels are photographed one-by-one against a painted background using a rostrum camera. Full animation produces high-quality films regularly using detailed drawings and plausible movement. Fully animated films can be made in various styles ranging from realistic works like The Little Mermaid to cartoon styles of Warner Bros. Limited animation uses less detailed drawings and methods resulting in choppy skippy movement. This technique employs fewer drawings per second thereby limiting fluidity. It is a more economic technique pioneered by United Productions of America artists. Rotoscoping traces live-action movement frame by frame as patented by Max Fleischer in 1917. Stop motion describes animation created by physically manipulating real-world objects photographing them one frame at a time. Computer animation encompasses techniques where creation happens digitally on a computer. 3D models start by creating polygon meshes connected by edges and faces giving visual appearance of form. Rigging creates internal digital skeletal structures used to control mesh weighting vertices. Motion capture allows computers to copy movements into CG characters when actors wear special suits.
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Common questions
When was the phenakistiscope introduced and how did it work?
The phenakistiscope was introduced in 1833 as a stroboscopic disc that required viewers to look into a mirror while spinning a disk with sequential images painted on it. The rapid succession of pictures created an illusion of movement that captivated audiences for decades.
What is the oldest known example of complete traditional hand-drawn animation on standard cinematographic film?
Émile Cohl created Fantasmagorie in 1908 which stands as the oldest known example of complete traditional hand-drawn animation on standard cinematographic film. This film followed J. Stuart Blackton's release of The Haunted Hotel in 1907 which popularized stop motion techniques during the silent era.
Which animated feature film marked the start of the golden age of American animation and when was it released?
Walt Disney Studios premiered Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in 1937 which remains one of the highest-grossing traditional animation features ever made. The enormous success of Mickey Mouse placed Disney at the forefront of the animation industry and started the golden age of American animation lasting until the 1960s.
When did computer animation become dominant following the success of Toy Story?
The so-called 3D style became dominant following the success of Toy Story in 1995 which was the first computer-animated feature in this specific style. Most cel animation studios switched to producing mostly computer-animated films around the 1990s because it proved cheaper and more profitable than traditional methods.
What is the estimated value of the animation market in 2021 compared to 2010?
In 2010 the animation market was estimated to be worth circa US$80 billion while by 2021 the value had increased to an estimated US$370 billion. Animated feature-length films returned the highest gross margins around 52% of all film genres between 2004 and 2013.