Abbas the Great
On the 27th of January 1571, a baby named Abbas was born in the city of Herat. He was the third son of Shah Mohammad Khodabanda and his wife Khayr al-Nisa Begum. His father had been governor of Herat but suffered from an eye disease that left him almost blind. The Safavid court chronicler Iskandar Beg Monshi described Mohammad Khodabanda as a pious and gentle soul. Yet this gentleness did not protect the young prince.
When Abbas was barely eighteen months old, he was separated from both parents. Tahmasp I transferred them to govern Shiraz while leaving nominal control of Herat with the infant. The real power lay with Shah Qoli Sultan Ustajlu, an amir from the Ustajlu tribe who served as Abbas's guardian. This man became a substitute parent for the child who would never see his mother again until she died violently years later.
The political landscape shifted rapidly after Tahmasp I died on the 14th of May 1576 without designating an heir. Civil war erupted immediately. Haydar Mirza proclaimed himself shah with support from the Ustajlu tribe but was killed by royal bodyguards within days. Ismail II then emerged from prison where he had spent twenty years. His paranoia led him to murder members of the Ustajlu tribe regardless of their loyalty.
A group of horsemen rushed into Shah Qoli Sultan's house and killed him. The young Abbas watched helplessly as his protector fell. Ismail II ordered executions of many half-brothers, cousins, and nephews. He spared Mohammad Khodabanda because the blind father posed no threat. But in November 1577, Ali-Qoli Khan from the Shamlu tribe arrived in Herat to kill the boy.
Ali-Qoli delayed the execution citing religious holidays. This delay saved Abbas's life since Ismail II died from poisoned opium on the 24th of November 1577. Ali-Qoli assumed governorship of Herat and became Abbas's guardian once more. By February 1578, Mohammad Khodabanda was chosen as new shah though he appeared weak and incompetent.
Power passed quickly into other hands. Khayr al-Nisa Begum took complete charge making all decisions even in military matters. The Qizilbash tribes resented her authority. Divisions encouraged rebellions across the country. In July 1579, the Qizilbash stormed into the harem where the queen resided and strangled her. Though Abbas barely knew his mother, her murder made a deep impression on him.
That experience likely led to his belief that the power of the Qizilbash had to be broken. Hamza Mirza aged eleven was proclaimed crown prince after their mother's death. The Qizilbash found no reason to fear a child so they took control over the realm while fighting among themselves.
Abbas turned to newly introduced members of Iranian society called ghulams to counterbalance Qizilbash power. These were slave-soldiers mainly from Georgia Circassia and Armenia who had been brought into Iran en masse through conquest and slave trade. They converted or were converted to Islam before taking up service in the army royal household or civil administration.
Under Tahmasp I between 1540 and 1555 invasions of the Caucasus region provided battle experience for soldiers. These raids captured large numbers of Christian Circassian and Georgian slaves numbering around thirty thousand in just four expeditions. These slaves formed the basis of a Safavid military slave system serving similar roles to Ottoman janissaries.
During Abbas's reign alone estimates suggest one hundred thirty thousand to two hundred thousand Georgians tens of thousands of Circassians and around three hundred thousand Armenians were deported from the Caucasus to Persia's heartland. Many gained responsibilities including highest positions of state within the ghulam corps. Some settled as craftsmen farmers cattle breeders traders soldiers generals governors and peasants throughout Iranian society.
Abbas greatly expanded the ghulam military corps known as crown servants from just a few hundred during Tahmasp's era to fifteen thousand highly trained cavalrymen. This formed part of a whole army division of forty thousand Caucasian ghulams. He reduced Qizilbash provincial governorships systematically moving them to other districts disrupting their ties with local communities. Most were eventually replaced by ghulams whose loyalty belonged solely to the shah.
By 1595 Allahverdi Khan a Georgian became one of most powerful men when appointed Governor-General of Fars province. His power peaked in 1598 becoming commander-in-chief of all armed forces. The ghulam system allowed the shah to control rival Qizilbash Turks and Persians while resolving budgetary problems short term at least. Provinces' revenues now supplemented royal treasury directly since government officials collected taxes remitting them straight to royal coffers.
In harem Circassians and Georgians rapidly replaced Turcoman factions gaining significant direct influence on meritocratic Safavid bureaucracy and court. The competition increased under Abbas weakening dynasty considerably. His own son Mohammad Baqer Mirza caught in court intrigue involving leading Circassians eventually executed under Abbas orders.
Abbas needed ten years to get his army into shape confronting Ottoman and Uzbek enemies effectively. During this period Uzbeks and Ottomans took swaths territory from Iran. He created standing army many thousands strong consisting always conscripted ethnic Georgians and Circassians fighting alongside traditional feudal force provided by Qizilbash. New regiments loyal only to Shah included ten thousand to fifteen thousand cavalry squires armed with muskets largest cavalry world possessed plus corps musketeers tufangchiyan twelve thousand strong artillery corps tupchiyan also twelve thousand strong.
First campaign reformed army fought Uzbeks who seized Khorasan ravaging province. April 1598 attack recaptured Mashhad easily but Uzbek leader Din Mohammed Khan safely behind Herat walls. Abbas lured Uzbek army out town feigning retreat bloody battle ensued the 9th of August 1598 course which Uzbek khan wounded troops retreated killed murdered own men during withdrawal. Farhad Khan fled after being wounded later accused cowardice nevertheless forgiven wanted appoint governor Herat refused.
Farhad's refusal made Abbas feel insulted arrogant behavior suspected treason seen threat so executed converted Gilan Mazandaran crown domain appointed Allahverdi Khan new commander-in-chief Safavid army. By 1599 captured not only Herat Mashhad moved far east Balkh short-lived victory settling controlling some conquest because Baqi Muhammad Khan returned Balkh Uzbek domain defeating Safavid army near Balkh 1602.
North-east frontier safe time turn attention Ottomans west defeated Uzbeks moved capital Qazvin Isfahan. Ottoman ambassador arrogance series demands led Shah seize beard shaved sent master Sultan Constantinople effectively declaration war resulting conflict first recaptured Nahavand destroyed fortress city planned use advance base attacks Iran next year pretended setting hunting expedition Mazandaran ruse deceive Ottoman spies court real target Azerbaijan changed course Qazvin assembled large army set retake Tabriz long Ottoman hands.
Iranians made great use artillery town ruined Ottoman occupation soon fell. Abbas set besiege Yerevan main Ottoman stronghold Caucasus since ceded 1590 finally fell June 1604 Ottomans lost support most Armenians Georgians Caucasians unsure how new Sultan Ahmed I respond withdrew region using scorched earth tactics year neither side made move 1605 sent general Allahverdi Khan meet Ottoman forces shores Lake Van the 6th of November 1605 Iranians led Abbas scored decisive victory Sufyan near Tabriz Caucasus managed capture Kabardino-Balkaria Persian victory recognized Treaty Nasuh Pasha 1612 granting suzerainty most Caucasus.
Abbas moved capital from Qazvin to more central city Isfahan 1598 embellished magnificent series new mosques baths colleges caravansarais became one beautiful cities world Roger Savory wrote development Baghdad eighth century Caliph al-Mansur comprehensive example town-planning Islamic world scope layout city centre clearly reflect status capital empire.
Isfahan became center Safavid architectural achievement mosques Masjed-e Shah Masjed-e Sheykh Lotfollah monuments including Ali Qapu Chehel Sotoun palace Naqsh-e Jahan Square making Isfahan center Safavid Empire utilized Armenians forcibly relocated homeland Armenian highlands settled allowed considerable freedom encouraged continue silk trade integral part economy considered best form hard currency available.
Armenians established trade networks allowed strengthen Iran's economy. Abbas brought three hundred Chinese potters Iran enhance local production Chinese-style ceramics carpet weaving increased role important part Persian culture wealthy Europeans started importing Persian rugs silk production monopoly crown manuscripts bookbinding ceramics important exports.
In 1601 made pilgrimage foot Isfahan Mashhad site shrine Imam Reza restored despoiled Uzbeks Sunni Islam religion main rival Ottoman Empire often treated Sunnis living western border provinces harshly usually tolerant Christianity Italian traveller Pietro Della Valle astonished Shah knowledge Christian history theology establishing diplomatic links European Christian states vital part shah foreign policy therefore allowed establishment Roman Catholic missions Persia realm building churches monasteries though forbade converting Muslims.
Treatment Armenian Christians varied different times Christian Armenia key Safavid province bordering Ottoman Empire awarded some monopolies silk trading houses participated 1620 Armenian religious ceremony other times deported Armenians 1621 set strong economic incentives Armenians convert sent generals forcibly convert communities edges empire 1604 implemented scorched earth policy Persian Armenia protect north-western frontier invading Ottoman forces involved forced resettlement up to three hundred thousand Armenians homelands came primarily wealthy merchant town Jugha known Jolfa many transferred New Julfa town built shah primarily meant these Armenians Old Julfa near capital Isfahan thousands died journey survived enjoyed considerable religious freedom New Julfa shah built new cathedral aim boost Iranian economy encouraging Armenian merchants moved New Julfa offered interest-free loans allowed town elect own mayor kalantar.
Abbas changed empire mainly held together strong beliefs several militant tribes Qizilbash unified stable monarchy strengthened state securing borders improving economy setting centralised administration creating regular army Shahsavan reported directly him instead tribal leaders keen economic commercial understanding brought wealth prosperity nation internal stability consistent regulations encouraged agricultural growth infrastructure projects included roads public buildings carried out unprecedented scale enabled flourishing crafts industries skilled diplomat broad outlook sought political economic ties Western countries foreign ambassadors warmly welcomed court.
Silk monopoly crown became integral part economy considered best form hard currency available. Abbas utilized Armenians forcibly relocated Isfahan from homeland Armenian highlands settled allowed considerable freedom encouraged continue silk trade established trade networks allowed strengthen Iran's economy. Silk production became monopoly crown manuscripts bookbinding ceramics important exports.
In 1602 Iranian army under command Imam Quli Khan Undiladze managed expel Portuguese Bahrain 1622 help four English ships retook Hormuz Portuguese replaced trading centre new port Bandar Abbas nearby mainland never became successful effectively safeguarded integrity Persian borders expelled Portuguese Hormuz Island Persian Gulf solidified Iran identity national state.
Shah set great store alliance Spain chief opponent Ottomans Europe offered trading rights chance preach Christianity Iran return help against Ottomans stumbling block Hormuz remained port fallen Spanish hands King Spain inherited throne Portugal 1580 Spanish demanded break relations English East India Company consider relinquishing town unable comply eventually frustrated Spain Holy Roman Empire wanted make 400,000 plus Armenian subjects swear allegiance Pope trouble inform Emperor Rudolf signed peace treaty Ottomans contacts Pope Poland Muscovy no more fruitful.
More came contacts English England little interest fighting Ottomans Shirley brothers arrived 1598 helped reorganise Iranian army proved pivotal Safavid victory Ottoman-Safavid War 1603-1618 first Safavid victory battle neighbouring Ottoman archrivals Robert Shirley led second diplomatic mission Europe between 1609 1615 English East India Company began take interest Iran 1622 four ships helped retake Hormuz Portuguese capture Ormuz opportunity develop trade Persia attempting trade English cloth commodities silk did not become very profitable lack Persian interest small quantity English goods.
In 1599 Abbas sent first diplomatic mission Europe group crossed Caspian Sea spent winter Moscow proceeding Norway Germany received Emperor Rudolf II Rome Pope Clement VIII gave travellers long audience finally arrived court Philip III Spain 1602 expedition never managed return Iran shipwrecked journey around Africa marked important new step contacts Iran Europe Europeans fascinated Iranians culture Shakespeare's 1601-02 Twelfth Night makes two references Sophy then English term Shahs of Iran Persian fashions shoes heels men enthusiastically adopted European aristocrats henceforward number diplomatic missions from Persia greatly increased.
Shah declared preferred dust shoe soles lowest Christian highest Ottoman personage idea anti-Ottoman alliance century before Uzun Hassan ruler part Iran asked Venetians military aid none Safavids made diplomatic overtures Europe attitude marked contrast grandfather Tahmasp I expelled English traveller Anthony Jenkinson court hearing Christian.
Contacts Pope Poland Muscovy no more fruitful More came contacts English England little interest fighting Ottomans Shirley brothers arrived 1598 helped reorganise Iranian army proved pivotal Safavid victory Ottoman-Safavid War 1603-1618 first Safavid victory battle neighbouring Ottoman archrivals Robert Shirley led second diplomatic mission Europe between 1609 1615 English East India Company began take interest Iran 1622 four ships helped retake Hormuz Portuguese capture Ormuz opportunity develop trade Persia attempting trade English cloth commodities silk did not become very profitable lack Persian interest small quantity English goods.
Abbas offered trading rights chance preach Christianity Iran return help against Ottomans stumbling block Hormuz remained port fallen Spanish hands King Spain inherited throne Portugal 1580 Spanish demanded break relations English East India Company consider relinquishing town unable comply eventually frustrated Spain Holy Roman Empire wanted make 400,000 plus Armenian subjects swear allegiance Pope trouble inform Emperor Rudolf signed peace treaty Ottomans contacts Pope Poland Muscovy no more fruitful.
Of Abbas five sons three survived past childhood so Safavid succession seemed secure good terms crown prince Mohammed Baqir Mirza born 1587 better known West Safi Mirza. In 1614 during campaign Georgia shah heard rumours prince conspiring leading Circassian Farhad Beg Cherkes shortly after Mohammed Baqer broke protocol hunt killing boar before shah chance put spear animal seemed confirm suspicions sunk melancholy trusted any three sons 1615 decided choice have Mohammed killed Circassian named Behbud Beg executed Shah orders prince murdered hammam city Rasht shah almost immediately regretted action plunged grief.
In 1621 fell seriously ill heir Mohammad Khodabanda thought deathbed began celebrate accession throne Qizilbash supporters shah recovered punished son blinding disqualify ever taking throne blinding partially successful prince's followers planned smuggle country safety Mughals aid overthrow Abbas install Mohammed plot betrayed prince's followers executed prince imprisoned fortress Alamut later murdered Abbas successor Shah Safi.
Imam Qoli Mirza third last son became crown prince groomed carefully throne reason 1627 had partially blinded imprisoned Alamut unexpectedly chose heir son Mohammed Baqir Mirza Sam Mirza cruel introverted character said loathe grandfather father's murder nevertheless succeeded Shah Abbas age 17 1629 taking name Shah Safi.
Abbas health poor 1621 onwards died palace Farahabad Caspian coast 1629 buried Kashan. His reign marked peak Safavid dynasty achievement art diplomacy commerce Cambridge History Iran rejects view death Abbas marked beginning decline Safavid dynasty Iran continued prosper throughout 17th century blames poor statesmanship later Safavid shahs elimination royal princes whether blinding immuring harem exclusion affairs state contact leading aristocracy empire generals abuses princes education nothing new normal practice court Isfahan effectively put stop training competent successors efficient princes prepared meet demands ruling kings.
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Common questions
When was Abbas the Great born and where did he grow up?
Abbas the Great was born on the 27th of January 1571 in the city of Herat. He spent his early childhood there before being separated from his parents at eighteen months old.
How did Shah Abbas the Great build a new military force to counter Qizilbash power?
Shah Abbas the Great created a standing army using ghulams who were slave-soldiers from Georgia Circassia and Armenia. This force included fifteen thousand cavalrymen twelve thousand musketeers and twelve thousand artillerymen loyal only to him.
What major cities did Shah Abbas the Great capture during his wars against Uzbeks and Ottomans?
Shah Abbas the Great recaptured Mashhad in April 1598 and later took Tabriz Yerevan and Balkh from Ottoman and Uzbek control. His forces also expelled Portuguese forces from Hormuz in 1622 with help from English ships.
Why did Shah Abbas the Great move the capital from Qazvin to Isfahan in 1598?
Shah Abbas the Great moved the capital to Isfahan to create a more central location for his empire and to embellish it with mosques baths colleges and caravansarais. The city became the center of Safavid architectural achievement including Naqsh-e Jahan Square.
When did Shah Abbas the Great die and what was the cause of his death?
Shah Abbas the Great died in 1629 at the palace Farahabad on the Caspian coast after suffering poor health since 1621. He was buried in Kashan following his reign which marked the peak of the Safavid dynasty.