Short answers, pulled from the story.
Titanium was discovered in 1791 by William Gregor, a clergyman and geologist in Cornwall, Great Britain, who identified an unknown metallic oxide in black sand he found by a stream. The element was named titanium by Prussian chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth, who independently rediscovered it in 1795 and named it after the Titans of Greek mythology.
The Kroll process is the dominant industrial method for producing titanium metal, developed by William Justin Kroll in the 1940s by reducing titanium tetrachloride with magnesium in an argon atmosphere. It replaced the earlier Hunter process because titanium cannot be reduced directly from ore with carbon, as carbon reacts with titanium to form titanium carbide. The process is still predominantly used for commercial production despite decades of research into alternatives.
Titanium is biocompatible, meaning it is non-toxic and not rejected by the body, and it has been used in surgical implants since the 1950s. Its ability to osseointegrate allows dental implants to bond directly with bone and last for over 30 years. Because titanium is non-ferromagnetic, patients with titanium implants can also be safely examined using MRI.
Titanium dioxide is the end point of approximately 95% of the world's refined titanium and is primarily used as a white pigment in paint, plastics, paper, and cement. It is also used in sunscreens because it reflects and absorbs UV light, and in gemstones and as an optical opacifier. Global maximum production capacity for titanium dioxide pigment was estimated at 9,800,000 metric tons in 2024.
The U.S. government classified titanium as a strategic material during the Cold War because of its critical role in high-performance military aircraft and submarines. The Defense National Stockpile Center maintained a large reserve of titanium sponge, and the Soviet Union pioneered its use in the hulls of submarines including the Alfa class and Mike class. The stockpile was dispersed in the 2000s, but the U.S. government still allocates 15,000 metric tons of titanium sponge annually as potential acquisitions.
China is the largest producer of titanium, accounting for 220,000 of the 320,000 metric tons of titanium sponge produced globally in 2024, or about 69% of the total, according to the United States Geological Survey's 2025 report. Japan is the second-largest producer at 55,000 metric tons and is also the largest exporter of titanium sponge. Russia is the third-largest producer through the company VSMPO-AVISMA.