Short answers, pulled from the story.
Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary defines thought as conscious processes occurring independently of direct sensory input. This definition distinguishes thought from perception which requires immediate input from sensory organs.
Jerry Fodor introduced the language of thought hypothesis which states that thinking happens in the medium of a mental language. This language is composed of words connected syntactically to form sentences.
Scientists discovered cellular mechanisms for making fresh memories in March 2020. Myelin is now seen as contributing to learning by controlling signal speed along neural wiring.
Jean Piaget describes children's cognitive development through stages differing qualitatively in mode of representation. Thought evolves from being based on perceptions at the sensorimotor stage in the first two years of life to operating on abstract principles in the stage of formal operations.
The law of contradiction states that for any proposition it is impossible that both it and its negation are true. Dialetheists reject the law of contradiction by holding that some propositions are both true and false.