Short answers, pulled from the story.
Researchers gathered at Dartmouth College in 1956 to launch the field of artificial intelligence. The program for their conference declared that every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence could be precisely described so that machines could simulate it.
Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon proposed in 1963 that a physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means of general intelligent action. Their hypothesis claimed that human thinking is a kind of symbol manipulation and that machines can be intelligent if they manipulate symbols correctly.
John Searle introduced the Chinese room thought experiment to argue that computers lack awareness or understanding despite appearing fluent. He concluded that actual mental states require specific physical-chemical properties found only in human brains, distinguishing strong AI from weak AI.
Modern consensus holds that attempts using Gödel’s incompleteness results to refute computationalism are illegitimate because real-world human reasoning applies only to theoretically provable statements given infinite memory and time. Actual humans and machines have finite resources and struggle proving many theorems.
Scientists at Aberystwyth University designed Adam in 2009, believed to be the first machine independently generating new scientific findings. That same year Cornell researchers created Eureqa, extrapolating formulas fitting input data like pendulum motion laws.