Short answers, pulled from the story.
The concept of appealing a decision to a higher authority first appeared during the first dynasty of Babylon when King Hammurabi and his governors served as the highest appellate courts of the land.
England switched over to appeals in civil cases in 1873 and in criminal cases in 1907, marking a pivotal shift in how justice was administered.
American courts dispose of an appeal with words like judgment affirmed or judgment reversed, whereas British courts dispose of an appeal with words like appeal dismissed for a lack of merit or appeal allowed when the appeal succeeds.
Appeals are generally presented to a judge or a panel of judges who do not conduct independent fact-finding and instead review questions of law de novo.
The highest appellate court in a jurisdiction is sometimes referred to as a court of last resort or supreme court, serving as the final arbiter of legal disputes within that system.
Litigants may waive the right to appeal as long as the waiver is considered and intelligent, meaning the individual understands the consequences of giving up their right to a higher review.